修饰语、定语从句和状语从句

1.  修饰语使用的四个基本原则

1）  修饰对象必须合理明确

Studies show that young people with higher-than-average blood pressure whose families have a history of high blood pressure are more likely than others to develop a severe form of the condition.（whose跳跃修饰young people）

2）  尽可能贴近修饰对象

3）  跳跃修饰的判断方法

Ø  先就近修饰，再跳跃修饰

Ø  利用主谓一致判断修饰对象

Out of America's fascination with all things antique has grown a market for bygone styles of furniture and fixtures that is bringing back the chaise lounge, the overstuffed sofa, and the claw-footed bathtub.（that从句修饰market）

Ø  利用逻辑关系判断修饰对象

Byron possessed powers of observation that would have made him a great anthropologist and that make his letters as a group the rival of the best novels of the time.（that从句修饰powers）

4）  修饰语的位置改变原则

不能随意改变修饰语的位置，但当修饰对象不清或者修饰对象引起争议时，可以改变修饰语的位置。

The proliferation of so-called cybersquatters, people who register the Internet domain names of high-profile companies in hopes of reselling the rights to those names for a profit, led to passing the Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act in 1999, allowing companies to seek up to $100,000 in damages against those who register domain names with the sole intent of selling them later.

in 1999既可能修饰Act也可能修饰passing,导致修饰不清

The proliferation of so-called cybersquatters, people who register the Internet domain names of high-profile companies in hopes of reselling the rights to those names for a profit, led to the passage in 1999 of the Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, which allows companies to seek up to $100,000 in damages against those who register domain names with the sole intent of selling them later.

时间状语in 1999紧靠修饰对象the passage,修饰无歧义

2.  名词的修饰语

1）  名词的修饰语数量要相对有限：尽可能控制在3~4个以内

2）  名词的修饰语要尽可能有层次地分布在名词前或者名词后，并且保持逻辑关系清晰

常用模式为：限定词 + 前置修饰语 + 中心词 + 后置修饰语

3）  名词的前置修饰语中and和逗号的使用

有时可只用逗号而不用and表示并列关系，两者无意义变化。一般来说，多个前置修饰语的语义类别不同，他们之间不能加逗号或and隔开；如果语义类别相同，他们之间可以用逗号或and隔开。

正确用法：the official financial help；a concrete and glass factory；a concrete, glass factory

错误用法：the official and financial help；the official, financial help

4）  修饰语的位置

Ø  放在后面：n + -ed

the people questioned，the only place left，those selected，the material needed，the method adopted，the journalists surveyed

Ø  前后都可：available

Ø  放在前面：increased/increasing + n.

3.  限定性和非限定性定语从句

限定性定语从句对先行词起限制、确定作用，与先行词有着不可分割的关系，它的前面通常没有逗号；非限定性定语从句与先行词之间只有比较松散的关系，通常用逗号与主句隔开。

非限定性定语从句的关系代词which不能指代整个句子，正确的表达如下。

Ø  句子，-ing ...：-ing分词短语作伴随结果状语

Stock levels for domestic crude oil are far lower than in past years, leaving domestic oil prices vulnerable to any hints of oil supply disruptions in the Middle East or any unexpected growth in consumer demand that might be prompted by colder-than-normal temperatures.

Ø  句子 + n.结尾，which ...：which引导定语从句修饰n.

Intended primarily to stimulate family summer travel, the new airfare, which allows both an adult and a child to fly for the price of one ticket, also shortens the advance-purchase requirement for family travel to a minimum of seven days rather than fourteen.

Ø  名词/代词/数词 + of + which/whom ...结构作非限定性定语从句

India is country with at least fifty major regional languages, fourteen of which are officially recognized.

4.  准确使用关系代词和关系副词

关系代词：that（人或物），which（物），who（人，主格），whom（人，宾格），whose（人或物）

关系副词：when，where，why

5.  定语从句习惯搭配

Ø  the period when ...

The period when the great painted caves at Lascaux and Altamira were occupied by Upper Paleolithic people has been established by carbon-14 dating, but what is much more difficult to determine is the reason for their decoration, the use to which primitive people put the caves, and the meaning of the magnificently depicted animals.

Ø  a time when ...

At a time when women typically had a narrow range of choices, Mary Baker Eddy became a distinguished writer and the founder, architect, and builder of a growing church.

Ø  since 19XX when ...

Since 1987 when the company went public, sales have nearly doubled, to $243 million last year.

Ø  the year that ...

Which year is the last year that can be divided by 37 in the 20th century?

Ø  the way in which ...

From the earliest days of the tribe, kinship determined the way in which the Ojibwa society organized its labor, provided access to its resources, and defined rights and obligations involved in the distribution and consumption of those resources.

Ø  the way + 句子

Most large companies prefer customized computer software because it can be molded to fit the way a company does business, whereas off-the-shelf software often requires the company to alter its procedures to fit the software.

Ø  an age in which ...

His studies of ice-polished rocks in his Alpine homeland, far outside the range of present-day glaciers, led Louis Agassiz in 1837 to propose the concept of an age in which great ice sheets existed in what are now temperate areas.

Ø  the next time + 句子

In its most recent approach, the comet Crommelin passed the Earth at about the same distance and in about the same position, some 25 degrees above the horizon, as will Halley’s comet the next time it appears.

Ø  phenomenon in which ...

El Nino, the periodic abnormal warming of the sea surface off Peru, is a phenomenon in which changes in the ocean and atmosphere combine to allow the warm water that has accumulated in the western Pacific to flow back to the east.

6.  介词与关系代词连用

关系代词whom和which与一个含有介词的动词短语连用时，介词应该放在关系代词的前面。

Declining values for farm equipment and land, the collateral against which farmers borrow to get through the harvest season, are going to force many lenders to tighten or deny credit this spring.

7.  状语从句的主语

1）  状语从句在主句之前，如果主语相同，任何一个主语都可以用代词表示

2）  主句在状语从句之前，如果主语相同，只有状语从句的主语可以用代词表示

The Olympic Games helped to keep peace among the pugnacious states of the Greek world when they proclaimed a sacred truce for the festival month.

3）  before/after/while doing sth., + 句子，doing sth.的逻辑主语等于句子主语

The caterpillar of the geometrid moth strikes when special tactile hairs on its body are disturbed and, after capturing its prey, holds the victim so that it cannot escape.

8.  时间状语从句

after，when，whenever，while，as，since，ever since，until，once，as soon as

before/after + 句子/短语/doing sth., + 句子：doing sth.的逻辑主语等于句子主语

9.  方式状语从句

as用来引导方式状语从句，含“按照…的方式”或“类似…方式”之意。

Always do to the others as you would be done by.（你希望人家怎样待你，你就要怎样待人。）

10. 目的和结果状语从句

1）  so/such ... that ...：表示结果，such后一般不加抽象名词

Found throughout Central and South America, the sloth hangs from trees by its long rubbery limbs, sleeping fifteen hours a day and moving so infrequently that two species of algae grow on its coat and between its toes.

2）  so/such ... as to ...：表示结果，用于单一主谓结构中，as to的逻辑主语等于句子主语

Climatic shifts are so gradual as to be indistinguishable at first from ordinary fluctuations in the weather.

3）  so that ... + 情态动词 + ...：表示目的

Although the manager agreed to a more flexible work schedule, he said that it must be posted on the bulletin board so that both management and labor will know what everyone is assigned to do.

4）  so that ...（无情态动词）：表示结果

Everyone lent a hand, so that the work was finished ahead of schedule.

5）  so as to：既可以表示目的又可以表示结果，用于单一主谓结构中，as to的逻辑主语等于句子主语

The test questions are kept secret so as to prevent cheating.

11. 条件状语从句

if，only if，unless，as long as，on condition that ...，should（如果/假如） + 主语 + do（原形）/be done

Developing nations in various parts of the world have amassed $700 billion in debts; at stake, should a significant number of these debts be repudiated, is the solvency of some of the world’s largest multinational banks.

if只能引导条件状语从句，表示“如果”，只有whether可以表示“是否”，引导主语从句、宾语从句和表语从句。

In an assessment of the problems faced by rural migrant workers, the question of whether they are better off materially than the urban working poor is irrelevant.

12. 转折与让步状语从句

Ø  although，even though，even if，while，whereas，where

The Immigration Service now has the discretionary power to keep families united even though not all their members meet the five-year residency requirement.

Ø  however much/many/long/great ...：however表示强烈语气

However much United States voters may agree that there is waste in government and that the government as a whole spends beyond its means, it is difficult to find broad support for a movement toward a minimal state.

Ø  特别注意：despite（介词） + 名词短语，不能加句子或doing

Despite massive federal subsidies to public transportation systems and major local efforts to persuade the public to use public transportation, mass transit has been steadily losing patronage to the private automobile for the past thirty years.

13. 原因状语从句

because，as，since，for，now that，if only because（唯一的原因是…），in that

Now that our plan are settled let us proceed.

14. 状语从句的省略

正确形式：连词（when/while/if/unless/although/even/though/even if）+ adj./-ing/-ed（逻辑主语同主句）

Recently implemented “shift-work equations” based on studies of the human sleep cycle have reduced sickness, sleeping on the job, and fatigue among shift workers while raising production efficiency in various industries.

错误形式：连词 + 介词短语/名词短语

特殊情况：once + 介词短语/名词短语；whatever + 名词短语

Once an apolitical confrontation of the world’s best athletes, the Summer Olympics have been increasingly politicized in recent years as the superpowers have denied many of the best athletes’ access to competition.

According to some analysts, whatever its merits, the proposal to tax away all capital gains on short-term investments would, if enacted, have a disastrous effect on Wall Street trading and employment.