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1.28-2.11GMAT阅读新题无答案版

1.
Social Science Division. 2

1.1 Culture. 2

1.1 .1非洲导演by PPfighting. 2

1.1.2.新墨西哥城建筑的保护... 3

1.1.3 Native American. 4

1.1.4 研究作家小时候的故事对他的影响... 4

1.2
Business and Economics. 6

1.2.1企业战略... 6

1.2.2 美国经济... 6

1.2.3 公司治理... 6

1.2.4 广告... 7

1.2.5 广告2. 8

1.2.6 Deregulation of commission fees of brokerage firms. 10

1.2.7 Business relations. 11

1.2.8 Government regulations on financial institutions. 12

1.2.9 污水处理... 12

1.2.10,公司污染治理... 12

1.2.11 发电厂做的市场调查和对电厂reliabilityconcern. 13

1.2.12 卖车... 13

1.2.13 Cost Disease. 13

1.3 History and Politics. 13

1.3.1 美国历史... 13

1.3.2 二战妇女工作历史... 14

1.3.3 美国妇女就业与美国战后时期的关系... 14

1.3.4 妇女财产... 14

1.3.5 妇女政治地位... 15

1.3.6 古代女性工作... 15

1.3.7 服务业妇女就业... 15

1.3.8 美国
technology innovation
. 15

1.3.9 男女工作比例... 15

2.
Natural Science Division. 16

2.1 Geography & Geology. 16

2.1.1 Shell mounds. 16

2.2 Biology. 17

2.2.1鸟类飞行... 17

2.2.2大型动物... 19

2.2.3 动物灭绝... 19

2.2.4 早期人类活动... 21

2.2.5 Working memoryMIR. 22

2.2.6 蜂蜜的颜色... 23

2.2.7 Sparling胡瓜鱼... 23

2.2.8 鸟认路... 24

2.3 other natural science. 24

2.3.1 Glass. 24

2.3.2 Big bang Theory大爆炸理论... 27

2.3.3 语言影响大脑区分颜色... 27

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2.3.3 语言影响大脑区分颜色
V1 by thunder079
语言是怎样影响大脑区分颜色的。 举例了俄语和英语形容蓝色的区别, 做了实验:3个卡片先给一个俄国人看, 都是蓝的, 然后再给他看3个 有一个不是特殊的什么什么蓝(暗蓝), 然后(忘了)。。。。1 段最后说这个实验给说    英语的做 结果一样。 第二段做不同顺序卡片的实验, 貌似是给说英语的人做的, 5个颜色的卡片, 其中一个颜色不同的 当放在左边 和右边时, 被区别的速度不同。 然后有关于左右脑在这方便是怎么运作的结论。
V2 by sutchie
讲那个语言怎样影响大脑区分颜色的。第一段讲有个hypothesis认为语言对大脑区分颜色有影响。说做了一个实验,分别给俄国人和英国人看3种蓝色,两种浅蓝和一个深蓝。俄国人对浅蓝色的区分速度比对深蓝色的快。英国人对这个实验没有反应。
第二段好像就是解释这个hypothesis吧
第三段又做了一个实验,给英国人的。说卡片被放在左边和右边被区分的速度不同(这段我没怎么看懂)结论是虽然学习语言用到的是左脑,但是对右脑的development也有影响..

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2.3.2 Big bang Theory大爆炸理论
V1 by gavensc
天文学家和粒子物理学家合作,然后又big bang theory,对比他们的研究方法,原来都是独立的,互相交集很少,现在开始合作了,两种方法都对big bang如何如何的。
考古 by nowwsy
17 C学科与P学科的联姻
V1    by lori2009
有一篇是讲一个C学科和PHYSIC什么什么的marriage,第一段分别讲c学科和p学科研究方式和内容(好像是c 学科无法用实验验证,p学科没有实际用途什么的)第二段讲c学科对the big bang 物质种类的预测可用p学科的accelerator验证,第三段讲c学科对p学科的发展也有作用还提到了一个什么TOE理论的
第一题问此文章没有用哪个修辞手法A Rhetorical 修辞 B 概括  C contrast Dmetaphor
V2    by audrey1007
是cosmology(宇宙学)和pxx physics的marriage那道,第一段概括说最近这两个家伙,一个侧重oberservational,一个侧重experiment,都不太好,然后最近开始联姻,第二段写C对P的帮助,第三段讲P对C的帮助,差不多就这样吧~问题有一个是问全文用了下面的修辞除了
V3    by probamboo
cosmopology与partical physics 结合
问作者采用哪些写作手法:
我选的A rhetctic questions(拼写可能有误)
B generization
C comparision
V4    by zhaoyiqing
还有就是某学科和某学科嫁接的 最后又个选择是狗理没的 有个选项是BIG BANG是在几秒内完成的 物理好的同学可能会速选这个 因为COMMON SENSE嘛 于是我在时间来不及的情况下差点选了

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2.3 other natural science
2.3.1 Glass
V1 by zhangquan8882
一篇是关于glass得,broken,strength,broken into small pieces 不长,两端,不好意思 只能记起几个关键词。
V2 by gzpeva
.glass 那篇,3段,比较长。
Conformity (一致)
Complexity
V3 by zhepeking
玻璃的强度那篇,JJ里面提到过,可算知道为什么JJ里面就提了一句话了,因为科普性很强,一直在对比工业玻璃和普通玻璃的特性
出了许多道细节题
还有一道类比题,记得好像是定位在第三段里面的,需要大家阅读的时候看的仔细一点
LZ没有遇到主旨题
所以刚开始轮廓法看,只能回头又看了一遍。。。
V4 by Gratuitous
说玻璃刚刚造好的时候是很坚固的,但是之后后就开始老化有很多方式可以使它强化。比如说坚固的电脑屏幕是玻璃制作时采用无空气冷却,有的还往玻璃表层加神马玩意让他坚固但影响透光性,还有的用S开头的化学元素掺和,还有的采用什么新结构,碎的时候会碎成小块儿块儿,不伤人。反正比较简单,题目都偏细节,问的都是每一种工艺的的特别之处,或者给个特别的性质,让猜是哪种工艺。不难,虽然我错的很多
V5 by clair1024
GLASS 那篇
P1玻璃易碎 有方法让他变得结实 比如。。
P2两种temper让玻璃更结实
P3。。integrity 高亮(题中问 哪个词替换integrity的话 差异最小 根据上下文说钢化玻璃小块的不易碎 有完整性)
V6 by anono2010
1, 关于玻璃的制作,以及有机玻璃 (tempered glass)具体的制作过程,好处。(这个应该可以考古得到,因为我有印象我在哪里看过)
有一个问题是举了其他几种东西的例子,问哪一个是跟有机玻璃一样的性质,因为文章里有提到有机玻璃的一个“缺点”就是碎了会碎得很细小,但这一点对于安全来说是却是好事。

Flawed Beauty:. the problem with toughened glass
On 2nd August 1999, a particularly hot day in the town of Cirencester in the UK, a large pane of toughened glass in the roof of a shopping centre at Bishops Walk shattered(粉碎) without warning and fell from its frame. When fragments were analysed by experts at the giant glass manufacturer Pilkington, which had made the pane(窗格), they found that minute crystals of nickel sulphide trapped inside the glass(镍硫化物分钟晶体被困在玻璃)had almost certainly caused the failure.
'The glass industry is aware of the issue,' says Brian Waldron, chairman of the standards committee at the Glass and Glazing Federation, a British trade association, and standards development officer at Pilkington. But he insists that cases are few and far between. 'It's a very rare phenomenon,' he says.  ------------BW认为很少见
Others disagree. 'On average I see about one or two buildings a month suffering from nickel sulphide related failures,' says Barrie Josie, a consultant engineer involved in the Bishops Walk investigation. Other experts tell of similar experiences. Tony Wilmott of London-based consulting engineers Sandberg, and Simon Armstrong at CIadTech Associates in Hampshire both say they know of hundreds of cases. 'What you hear is only the tip of the iceberg,' says Trevor Ford, a glass expert at Resolve Engineering in Brisbane, Queensland. He believes the reason is simple: 'No-one wants bad press.'其他人认为很常见
Toughened glass is found everywhere, from cars and bus shelters to the windows, walls and roofs of thousands of buildings around the world. It's easy to see why. This glass has five times the strength of standard glass, and when it does break it shatters into tiny cubes rather than large, razor-sharp shards. Architects love it because large panels can be bolted together to make transparent walls, and turning it into ceilings and floors is almost as easy.
It is made by heating a sheet of ordinary glass to about 620°C to soften it slightly, allowing its structure to expand, and then cooling it rapidly with jets of cold air. This causes the outer layer of the pane to contract and solidify before the interior. When the interior finally solidifies and shrinks, it exerts a pull on the outer layer that leaves it in permanent compression and produces a tensile force inside the glass. As cracks propagate best in materials under tension, the compressive force on the surface must be overcome before the pane will break, making it more resistant to cracking. 钢化玻璃咋做的,好处神马的
The problem starts when glass contains nickel sulphide impurities(玻璃含有镍硫化物杂质使问题产生). Trace amounts of nickel and sulphur are usually present in the raw materials used to make glass, and nickel can also be introduced by fragments of nickel alloys falling into the molten glass. As the glass is heated, these atoms react to form tiny crystals of nickel sulphide. Just a tenth of a gram of nickel in the furnace can create up to 50,000 crystals. 问题原因
These crystals can exist in two forms: a dense form called the alpha phase, which is stable at high temperatures, and a less dense form called the beta phase, which is stable at room temperatures. The high temperatures used in the toughening process convert all the crystals to the dense, compact alpha form. But the subsequent cooling is so rapid that the crystals don't have time to change back to the beta phase. This leaves unstable alpha crystals in the glass, primed like a coiled spring, ready to revert to the beta phase without warning.问题原因
When this happens, the crystals expand by up to 4%. And if they are within the central, tensile region of the pane, the stresses this unleashes can shatter the whole sheet. The time that elapses before failure occurs is unpredictable. It could happen just months after manufacture, or decades later, although if the glass is heated - by sunlight, for example - the process is speeded up. Ironically, says Graham Dodd, of consulting engineers Arup in London, the oldest pane of toughened glass known to have failed due to nickel sulphide inclusions was in Pilkington's glass research building in Lathom, Lancashire. The pane was 27 years old.
Data showing the scale of the nickel sulphide problem is almost impossible to find. The picture is made more complicated by the fact that these crystals occur in batches. So even if, on average, there is only one inclusion in 7 tonnes of glass, if i you experience one nickel sulphide failure in your building, that probably means you've got a problem in more than one pane. Josie says that in the last decade he has worked on over 15 buildings with the number of failures into double figures.
One of the worst examples of this is Waterfront Place, which was completed in 1990. Over the following decade the 40 storey Brisbane block suffered a rash of failures. Eighty panes of its toughened glass shattered due to inclusions before experts were finally called in. John Barry, an expert in nickel sulphide contamination at the University of Queensland, analysed every glass pane in the building. Using a studio camera, a photographer went up in a cradle to take photos of every pane.
These were scanned under a modified microfiche reader for signs of niclrel sulphide crystals. 'We discovered at least another 120 panes with potentially dangerous inclusions which were then replaced,' says Barry. 'It was a very expensive and time-consuming process that took around six months to complete.' Though the project cost A$1.6 million (nearly £700,000), the alternative - re-cladding the entire building - would have cost ten times as much.

toughened glass为钢化玻璃
当钢化玻璃破碎时,它的碎片不像普通玻璃一样。 钢化玻璃有时会突然破碎,“热胀冷缩”,外层比内层先收缩,天暖和的时候才会膨胀。
Brian Waldron在英文原文中一共出现了三次。第一次出现:“‘The glass industry is aware of the issue,’ says Brian Waldron.”意思是:“Brian Waldron说:‘整个玻璃行业已经意识到了这个问题(在没有任何征兆的情况下,一种硫化镍微型晶体可以导致钢化玻璃破碎)。’”第二次出现:“But he insists that cases are few and far between.”意思是:“但他坚持认为这种案例只不过是沧海一粟罢了。”第三次出现:“‘It’s a very rare phenomenon,’ he says.”意思是:“他说:‘这是一个非常罕见的现象。’”
Trevor Ford在原文中一共出现了两次。第一次出现:“‘What you hear is only the tip of the iceberg, ’ says Trevor Ford”意思是:“Trevor Ford说:‘你所听到的只是冰山一角(言外之意,实际上,硫化镍导致钢化玻璃破裂这类问题发生了很多次,但被我们听到的很少)。”第二次出现:“He believes the reason is simple: ‘No-one wants bad press.’”意思是说:“他认为(上述这件事的)原因很简单:‘没有人喜欢坏消息。’”
Graham Dodd在原文中只出现了一次:“Ironically, says Graham Dodd … the oldest pane of toughened glass known to have failed due to nickel sulphide inclusions … was 27 years old.”意思是:“Graham Dodd说,具有讽刺意味的是,由于含有硫化镍而导致破裂的钢化玻璃中,使用时间最长的一块用了27年。”(原文中出现了“最”这样含义,原文中“使用时间最长”和选项中“出事时间最晚”是一个意思。)
  John Barry在原文中一共出现了三次。第一次出现:“John Barry, an expert in nickel sulphide contamination at the University of Queensland, analysed every glass pane in the building.”意思是:“Queensland大学硫化镍方面的专家 John Barry检查了这栋大楼中的每一块玻璃。”第二次出现:“‘We discovered at least another 120 panes with potentially dangerous inclusions which were then replaced,’ says Barry.”意思是:“Barry说:‘我们发现还有另外的120块玻璃也存在同样的危险,后来将它们换掉了。’”第三次出现:“‘It was a very expensive and time-consuming process that took around six months to complete.’”意思是说:“(替换存在危险的玻璃)是一个昂贵而又费时的过程,它花了大约整整六个月的时间。”

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2.2.8 鸟认路
V1 by ansianchou
第一篇月度:讲一个什么鸟的
第一段:说有一种鸟可以认路,某科学家做了个试验证明这种鸟是根据太阳光来辨别方向
第二段:说第一段的科学家所做的试验引出了另外一个问题。不属于对第一段观点的推翻,而是补充说明的作用(个人理解,因为有题问第二段作用)

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2.2.7 Sparling胡瓜鱼
V1 by suomiliisa
考了一篇关于Sparling的,很长,完全不记得讲什么了

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2.2.6 蜂蜜的颜色
V1 by vannywei
大概就是测试蜂蜜的颜色来辨别好坏吧
第二段还提到一个new analyzer来分析蜂蜜的颜色。
V2 by deer321
有一篇讲honey的
第一段:以前人们觉得honey都是一个颜色的,其实不是的
第二段:鉴别honey质量方法是观测他的颜色,拿honey放到个什么仪器前面,然后观测他的颜色
第三段:有个company 发明了种More subjective way是新的一种P-什么开头的方法,company希望这个P什么方法能发挥地如同PH level-一种用于测试酒的质量的方法(有题,具体不记得了)

THE honey sold in those squeezable, bear-shaped bottles is always the same golden-brown color. But the raw honey gathered by beekeepers can be as white as snow or as dark as a Budweiser bottle, and it must be blended in order to produce the consistent versions familiar to shoppers. Bees, it seems, don't concern themselves too much with the aesthetic preferences of human consumers.

But for beekeepers, honey hues(色调) are a primary concern. Paler honeys can be sold to producers at a premium, on the theory that their flavors are subtler and their tints more appealing to gourmet shoppers -- that is, those who buy their honey in glass jars rather than plastic, ursine bottles.

A classic industry tiff, then, has found the beekeeper who contends that his honey is virtually white arguing with the middleman who sniffs that it's merely a light amber.

Hanna Instruments invented the C 221 Honey Color Analyzer to end such quarrels. This laptop-sized gadget automatically grades a honey sample's color and settles once and for all whether a beekeeper's haul merits an extra few cents a pound.

Honey color assessment has typically been done with the help of a tool called a Pfund grader, a black box with a thin, see-through opening and a color chart that runs from white to brown. The sample is placed in front of the opening, and an observer matches the honey's color to a spot on the chart. The Pfund grade is determined by how many millimeters that spot deviates from the far left of the chart: zero to eight millimeters is known as ''water white,'' 8 to 17 millimeters is ''extra white,'' and so on. The darkest, at more than 114 millimeters to the right, is dark amber.

Any system that relies on eyeball judgments, of course, is doomed to create bickering.

''What I see and what you see might be two different things,'' said Michael Bogolawski, an applications engineer for Hanna, based in Woonsocket, R.I. ''I might say it's this grade, and you might say, 'No, it's closer to this grade.' With this meter, we've eliminated the subjectivity.''

The Hanna analyzer is similar to several of the company's other testing devices, which are used widely in the wine industry to measure pH levels and in the water industry to check for chlorine.

The honey grading machine is basically a photometer, which measures the amount of light absorbed by a substance. A tungsten lamp floods the sample with light, and a sensor measures precisely how much is reflected. The darker the honey, the fewer the rebounding photons.

The analyzer's software correlates the amount of returned light with the Pfund scale and gives a readout on a digital screen. Hanna says the analyzer's Pfund grades are accurate within two millimeters.

Though there are about 2.5 million commercial bee colonies in the nation, according to the Agriculture Department, Hanna understands that the market for its Honey Color Analyzer is somewhat narrow. Since the device made its debut in January 2004, the company's sales team has focused on attending trade shows, like the American Beekeeping Federation's annual convention, and traveling rural highways in search of professional beekeepers. Lou Niewiecki, a Hanna salesman, estimated that the company has sold ''a few hundred'' of the analyzers, at $500 apiece.

The Hanna machine, unfortunately, can't solve a more pressing problem in the industry: the invasion of the Varroa mite, a parasitic Asian insect that feasts on bee larvae. According to the National Honey Board, this ravenous mite has already destroyed up to 50 percent of the hives in California, the nation's largest honey producer.

If the situation persists, beekeepers may soon feel nostalgic for the days when their biggest headache was arguing over Pfund grades.
争论蜂蜜颜色,肉眼看不行。用汉娜仪器看,精确。但汉娜仪器解决不了更大问题——寄生虫,如果情况持续下去,养蜂人就该怀念争论蜂蜜颜色的日子了。。。

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2.2.5 Working memory和MIR
V1 by zhepeking
Working memory和MIR的那篇,很简单,MIR不是版里面说的什么information rate,而是一种用来测试working memory的方法,文章一共两端,第一段说了working memory是什么东西,用来干什么,举了两个观点,一个观点认为wm是由脑前页某个器官控制的,而另一个人跳出来不是,其实是由某个器官为主导,分两部分在其周围的器官上来具体控制的,然后第二段就用MIR的方法来测试,证明了后面那人的想法是对的
V1 by thunder079
大脑那个 Working memory, MIR, 2段。 和JJ说的差不多。 第一段先介绍了一下 Working memory, 然后说一个观点,结尾介绍了另一个(是更先前的观点,很多砖家认为的)。 第二段,砖家被否!。 有细节题 第一段的, 细读第一个观点, 描述大脑里面怎么运作的
考古 by nowwsy
第一段讲一个人的理论 说是记东西的时候分别用了大脑几个不同的区域(中间细节没看明白 )然后这与传统的理论不一样。中间的也忘了,最后说另一个人的实验还是什么的证明了这个理论是对的并否定了传统理论。
P1: 讲述人大脑的Working Memory的短暂记忆,是由大脑的P部位来控制,认为不同的部位控制不同的功能之类(新观点)。 这与Standard 的方法不一样,有什么Executive function之类(旧观点)。
P2: 后来一位研究证实了新观点的正确性,指出了Executive function之类的旧观点的矛盾。说明了不同的部位控制不同的功能。
参考资料 by nowwsy
Google 上找到一篇,不是原文,但很有帮助。Working memory is the process of maintaining a limited amount of information in an active representation for a brief period of time so that it is available for use. There-fore, by definition, working memory includes those processes that enable us to hold in our `mind's eye' the contents of our conscious(意识) awareness, even in the absence of sensory input. Thus, the study of working memory provides a framework for investigating the neural system underlying our awareness of stimuli, memories and knowledge that are no longer tied to perceptual events. Although the neural system responsible for working memory is known to include a large number of brain regions, there is abundant evidence from neurophysio-logical and lesion studies in monkeys that prefrontal cortex is a critical component (Fuster 1990; Goldman-Rakic 1990). Recent brain-imaging studies, using
positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), have also impli-cated the human prefrontal cortex in working memory.  However, there remain questions and some dispute about the functional organization of the human prefrontal cortex and its exact role in working memory.
版本1一篇是讲大脑传递信息的,叫working memory。有个人认为这个功能是在大脑的前额后面的一个地方负责的。并且不同的subregion负责不同的信息,如空间信息,形象信息等。这与传统的executive system理论不同。第二段又说有一个新实验,加强了那个人的理论。
版本2
"P1: 讲述人大脑的Working Memory的短暂记忆,是由大脑的P部位来控制,认为不同的部位控制不同的功能之类。这与Standard 的方法不一样,有什么Executive function之类(旧观点)。
P2: 后来一位研究证实了新观点的正确性,指出了旧观点的矛盾指出,Executive function之类的。说明了同的部位控制不同的功能之类。"
版本3
"关于working memory 的 大意 记不太清了:
1。working memory 是和executive memory 相对的; 有人发现working memory 储存在大脑的cortex中,而原来的理论说working  memory分散在cortex之外
2。另一个人发现 when recognize faces, the middle part of cortex is most active. 。。。
不好意思 记不太清 不误导大家了
版本4
" 第一段,work memory是一种短期的记忆,以前理论认为是由大脑的某个部分P来控制的。第二段,某个人发现,人在认路的时候P的某个部分反应很大,由此证明其实P分为很多单独的部分来管理不同的记忆,而不是总的控制。第三段,另一个人发现认人脸的时候也是一个单独的地方有反应,并且没有P是总控器官的证据,由此证明 某个人的发现是对的。
版本5
好像是讲人的大脑如何处理短期记忆的,是个新老观点对比型,其中讲到一个女科学家的新研究。第二段是一个新tech的发现什么,

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2.2.4 早期人类活动
V1 by angellmason
一个科考话题,确定一类早期的人或动物的活动啥的,然后用了一个新的方法,可以通过测定好像是牙齿呀什么的东西来确定他们的活动。(文章太长了,记不住)
考古 by nowwsy
古代动物的牙齿第一段:考古通常根据化石跟现在骨头的类似处总结以前的动物干些什么。第二段:这个不一定准blah blah。第三段:最近发现一种猿人牙齿化石锋利,但其实他不爱吃硬东西,有硬牙齿是因为以防万一环境不好,只有硬东西吃。
V2
第一段:古代有种动物的牙齿化石teeth and jaw表明它们只要能够找得到充沛的食物就不会吃那些硬的难以咀嚼的食物(有题)。
第二段忘了。
第二段:现代的同类动物的teeth 的jaw表明了类似的情况? 最后一句话有说古代的那种动物会把teeth and jaw strong的特点 pass to their genes。
V3 (V35)
科研人员往往把古代生物的特征和现代生物对比,去确定古代生物的习性。比如某远古人类的颌骨和灵长类很像,于是就推断他是草食。但科学家证明了他是杂事动物。这种研究方法存在漏洞。第二段又举了某种动物,也具有和灵长类相似的颌骨,但事实上他们并不吃草类。而是在饥荒的时候,草类很难消化,这种颌骨发达的个体才能生存下来,保留基因。有问整篇的主旨是什么。还有问哪一项可以帮助证明第二段的结论。
V4
P1提出一个理论说什么许多现在看起来应该是这样的,但在以前并不一定。。。(我也看得很晕) P2讲一个原始人类种拥有尖利的牙齿,以吃一些像生肉之类难以咀嚼的东西。 P3讲然而,又有一个原人类种并没有或少有这种牙齿,因为他们日常生活中不需要咀嚼难吃的东西,只会在比较困难的时候才会用到。所以,尖利的牙齿没有遗传下来。
V6
第一段是举了一个例子,说考古学家通常根据化石现在的样子推测之前动物的样子。然后举了一个例子大概是恐龙化石吧,不确定记不住了。有一题是问这个例子的作用的。
第二段:否定第一段的理论说明这个结论不一定准,然后举了个例子大概就是一个挖掘出来的什么东西的牙齿之类的结构跟今天的不一样。基本是这样,不想误导大家。
第三段:进一步阐述第二段的例子。最近发现一种猿人牙齿化石锋利,但其实他不爱吃硬东西,有硬牙齿是因为以防万一环境不好,只有硬东西吃。最后一句话好像是在气候环境之类的因素变恶劣的时候这些有坚固牙齿(类似是)的动物能生存下来。好像考过一个细节题。
V9 (V40)
讲的是远古时代一些动物牙齿的坚固程度与它们所掠的食物的关系。即,有一种theory认为,那个牙齿坚固的说明它们喜欢吃那些tough 的东西。但另一种theory认为,一般动物只有在环境恶劣,没有其他食物吃的时候,才去选择那些比较tough的东西。
注:作者确认: 与G12的确是文章不一样,不过主题是一样的,思路也差不多
OLD JJ
Version 1
1段:对一个化石骨骼研究有困难。1981的新发现帮助学者们reconstruction此脊椎生物,意义重大。
2段:对此生物的一个观点:这个骨骼的发展是为defensive purpose, 认定此脊椎生物是无脊椎动物prey。段末否定这个观点。
3段:继续阐述这个否定,认为这个生物一开始就是predator,所以此骨骼的目的是agressive.
Version 2
还有一个无脊椎动物的,1981年的新发现推翻了以前认为某种动物不是食肉动物的观点。我觉得阅读的关键就是要回到原文找到作者是怎么说的,再注意HOWEVER, WHILE等词就能判断正确
V5
一个化石骨骼的意义(长)。
1段:对一个化石骨骼研究有困难。1981的新发现帮助学者们reconstruction此脊椎生物,意义重大。
2段:对此生物的一个观点:这个骨骼的发展是为defensive purpose, 认定此脊椎生物是无脊椎动物prey。段末否定这个观点。
3段:继续阐述这个否定,认为这个生物一开始就是predator,所以此骨骼的目的是aggressive. V6
还有一个是讲一个new evidence对vertebrate地说明起到了很大的作用,解决了之前的一些纷争,第二段就说traditional view和另一派的纷争 说是traditional 的觉得vertebrate的发展是因为defend作用,而另一派则认为不是;最后一段说新evidence的发现证明的是passive是不对的,还提到了……最后一段出了一些题目

Tiny marks on the teeth of an ancient human ancestor known as the "Nutcracker(胡桃夹子) Man" may upset current evolutionary understanding of early hominid(原始人) diet.研究祖先牙齿可以更好地理解原始人的饮食习惯
Using high-powered microscopes, researchers looked at rough geometric(几何) shapes on the teeth of several Nutcracker Man specimens and determined that their structure alone was not enough to predict diet. 仅仅他们的不够预测饮食习惯的
Peter Ungar, professor of anthropology at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, contends the finding shows evolutionary adaptation for eating may have been based on scarcity(缺乏) rather than on an animal's regular diet.
"These findings totally run counter to what people have been saying for the last half a century," says Ungar. "We have to sit back and re-evaluate what we once thought."完全打翻之前的结论
Ungar and his colleagues, Frederick E. Grine of State University of New York at Stony Brook and Mark F. Teaford of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., reported their findings last week in the Public Library of Science One, a peer-reviewed, international, online journal. The research was funded in part by the National Science Foundation.
The researchers examined the teeth of Paranthropus boisei, an ancient hominin that lived between 2.3 and 1.2 million years ago and is known popularly as the "Nutcracker Man" because it has the biggest, flattest cheek teeth and the thickest enamel of any known human ancestor.
"Ungar and colleagues' work on Paranthropus boisei diet is extremely important," says Joanna Lambert, physical anthropology program director at NSF. "Understanding what and how early hominins ate sheds light not only onto the feeding biology of our fossil ancestors, but also onto the very evolution of our own species." 研究Paranthropus boisei的饮食习惯特重要
Scientists long have believed that P. boisei fed on nuts and seeds or roots and tubers found in the savannas(稀树草原) throughout eastern Africa because the teeth, cranium and mandible(头骨和下颌骨)appear to be built for chewing and crunching(捣弄) hard objects.
But Ungar points out that the teeth only suggest "what P. boisei could eat, but not necessarily what it did eat." 牙齿只说明:P. boisei能吃啥,说明不了他吃过啥
Anthropologists(人类学家) have traditionally inferred the diet of ancient human ancestors by looking at the size and shape of the teeth and jaws(下巴). However, by using powerful microscopes to look at the patterns of wear on a tooth, scientists can get direct evidence of what the species actually ate.通过牙齿上的磨损模式,科学家可以得到这些物种确实吃了啥的证据
Since food interacts with teeth, it leaves behind telltale signs that can be measured. Hard foods like nuts and seeds, for instance, lead to more complex tooth profiles, while tough foods like leaves lead to more parallel scratches.
Researchers compared dental microwear profiles of P. boisei to modern-day primates that eat different types of foods. P. boisei teeth were compared to those of the Old World Monkey species grey-cheeked mangabeys(白眉猴), and the New World Monkey species brown capuchin monkeys-both of these species consume mostly soft items but fall back on hard nuts or palm fronds.

Old World monkeys are found today in South and East Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Gibraltar at the southern tip of Spain. New World monkeys are found in tropical forest environments in southern Mexico, Central and South America.

P. boisei dental profiles also were compared to the New World mantled howling monkey and Old World silvered leaf monkey, which eat mostly leaves. Researchers also compared them to some of P. boisei's more contemporary counterparts-Australopithecus africanus, which lived between 3.3 million and 2.3 million years ago, and Paranthropus robustus, which lived between 2 million and 1.5 million years ago.

The findings showed that P. boisei teeth had light wear, suggesting that none of the individuals ate extremely hard or tough foods in the days leading up to death. The pattern was more consistent with modern-day fruit-eating animals than with most modern-day primates.

"It looks more like they were eating Jell-O," Ungar said.

This finding, while contradictory to previous speculation on the diet of P. boisei, is in line with a paradox documented in fish. Liem's Paradox states that animals may actively avoid eating the very foods they have developed adaptations for when they can find other food sources.

It appears the paradox may hold true for P. boisei and for some modern-day primates as well.

"If you give a gorilla a choice of eating fruit or a leaf, it will take the fruit every time," Ungar says. "But if you look at a gorilla's skull, its sharp teeth are adapted to consuming tough leaves. They don't eat the leaves unless they have to."

Accordingly, the finding represents a fundamental shift in the way researchers look at the diets of early human ancestors.

"For many years, the perspective has been that the very large teeth and thick dental enamel of P. boisei were adaptations to consuming very hard food types year-round," says Lambert. "Such specialization has historically been viewed as a potential cause for this fossil species' extinction. The research team demonstrated that such generalizations require careful re-thinking, and that P. boisei was a more flexible feeder than has classically been viewed."

"This challenges the fundamental assumptions of why such specializations occur in nature," Ungar says. "It shows that animals can develop an extreme degree of specialization without the specialized object becoming a preferred resource."

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2.2.3 动物灭绝
V1 by angellmason
关于动物灭绝的,说一个啥岛上,动物灭绝,可能是因为海底还是啥的生成二氧化碳过多???反正是举了个例子说个小岛的
考古 by nowwsy
V1 by 指尖墨痕
第一段:早起科学家认为是火山爆发导致了严重的地球气候变化最终引发了大批动物的灭绝。反驳:这个是有缺陷的,因为……一条理由。
第二段:提出了另外一种导致大批动物灭绝的原因:海平面下降。
海平面下降导致了大量水生动物外曝,从而消耗了比以前更多的氧气,最终使得二氧化碳量增多,水中溶氧量下降,接着导致了水生生物的濒危。当然可能伴随着火山爆发导致了最终大量动物灭绝,而要结合起来看这两个原因,不仅仅是由火山爆发决定的。                                
主题题:文章结构
主题题:作者认为是什么导致了大批动物的死亡?
细节题: 作者认为海平面下降最初导致了什么?
V2by geminist(770)
传统认为某个历史时间段内物种的大量灭绝是火山爆发的原因,但是作者做任何一个火山绝对没有这么大的威力可以造成这么多生物灭绝。然后第二段阐述了他的理论。那段时间海平面下降了,一些海洋类生物的栖息地于是被暴露出来。然后空气中的氧气减少,造成了酸雨啊什么的,生物们就差不多奄奄一息了。然后在这一系列的自然变化下,火山也爆发了,对生物灭绝雪上加霜。
题1:作者认为火山爆发对生物灭绝起了什么作用?
我的答案是:是所有因素当中的一个
题 2:最早是什么让在某地的海洋生物的栖息地暴露出来的?
我的答案是:海平面的下降
V3 by 棉花团团(760)
P1 科学家有观念认为某段时间里面的某些物种的灭绝是跟火山暴发有关。然后写了那个时期的(可能是某一次,不记得了)火山爆发对环境的影响,产生dust遮天蔽日之类。However,作者认为,这样的一次(或者这样规模)的火山暴发是不足以产生这样的效果的(P2挺长的,没有仔细看,生词很多,但是很简单。讲当时有某个大陆板块在动,跟旁边的大陆撞在一起,引起了海平面的下降,(考点)大陆架上的生物就暴露在水面外了。后面说了这些环境变化 引起了什么厌氧还是喜氧的生物的变化,恶性循环,大气里面氧气含量减少,co2变多,加上火山暴发引起的酸雨等等乱七八糟很多的因素,造成了生物的灭绝。逻辑其实挺强的,但是实在太复杂了,很多科学名词,看的时候觉得很有道理,但是回忆不起来了,考点不难
1). 大陆架的生物expose出来的最早的原因是什么,选:海平面的下降
2). 划线句有题:问什么可以strengthen这个说法,选在这个时期的晚些时候,发生了差不多magnitude的火山暴发,并没有引起相同的结果
V4by 同济的卡卡(700 V32)
题目主要有:
1). 大陆架的生物expose出来的最早的原因是什么,选:海平面的下降
2). 作者认为火山爆发对 生物灭绝起了什么作用?
3). 划线句有题:问什么可以strengthen这个说法,选在这个时期的晚些时候,发生了差不多magnitude的火山暴发,并没有引起相同的结果
V2
第一段讲关于物种灭绝的学说,有人认为是火山的大规模爆发(volcanism)导致物种的灭绝。但是有人提出异议,规模再大的火山爆发本身不足以导致物种的灭绝。
第二段讲另一种观点是海平面下降引起的。(好像提到了冈瓦纳古陆,古代几个大洲连在一起的那片大陆的名字)因为海平面下降,导致海边浅滩上的一些有机的物质 (可能包括一些动植物的遗迹)裸露在空气中,这些东西被氧化后,极大的耗费了水中的氧气,导致水生生物遭殃了(可能连带坑害了陆生生物);后来火山又喷发,排放了大量二氧化碳,导致了温室效应,于是陆生生物也遭殃了。后来海平面又回升了,于是原来在岸边苟延残喘的生物跟着遭殃了。            
问题:火山喷发对生物灭绝的作用?我选了有作用但只是起了一部分作用,不是起了最关键作用。
V3
extinction of creatures在某个时代以为是volcanism,但发现海平面drop也是一种原因。问题:以下选项中哪一个在文中没有给出论证?选海平面 drop,A选项。主题?A new hypothesis of ...,好像选A; volcanism的作用?responsible for the extinction, but only one of those forces, 选E;

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