Riff

2.2.1中国人测量喜马拉雅山
In 1975 Chinese survey teams remeasured Mount Everest, the highest of the Himalayan mountains. Like the British in 1852, they used the age-old technique of “carrying in” sea level: survey or smarched inland from the coast for thousands of miles, stopping at increments of as little as a few feet to measure their elevation, and marking each increment with two poles. To measure the difference in elevation between poles, surveyors used an optical level—a telescope on a level base—placed halfway between the poles. They sighted each pole, reading off measurements that were then used to calculate the change in elevation over each increment. In sight of the peaks the used theodolites telescopes for measuring vertical and horizontal angles—to determine the elevation of the summit.
The Chinese, however, made efforts to correct for the errors that had plagued the British. One source of error is refraction(折射), the bending of light beams as they pass through air layers of different temperature and pressure. Because light traveling down from a summit passes through many such layers, a surveyor could sight a mirage rather than the peak itself. To reduce refraction errors, the Chinese team carried in sea level to within five to twelve miles of Everest’s summit, decreasing the amount of air that light passed through on its way to their theodolites(经纬仪). The Chinese also launched weather balloons near their theodolites to measure atmospheric temperature and pressure changes to better estimate refraction errors. Another hurdle is the peak’s shape. When surveyors sight the summit, there is a risk they might not all measure the same point. In 1975 the Chinese installed the first survey beacon(灯塔，信号塔) on Everest, a red reflector visible through a theodolite for ten miles, as a reference point. One more source of error is the unevenness(不均匀，参差不齐) of sea level. The British assumed that carrying in sea level would extend an imaginary line from the shore along Earth’s curve to a point beneath the Himalaya. In reality, sea level varies according to the irregular interior of the planet. The Chinese used a gravity meter to correct for local deviations(偏差) in sea level.

Q32:  It can be inferred from the passage that refraction would be most likely to cause errors in measurements of a mountain’s elevation under which of the following conditions?
A.    When there are local variations in sea level
B.    When light passes through humid air
C.    When theodolites are used relatively far from the mountain peak.(由旧版答案D改为新版答案C)
D.    When weather balloons indicate low air temperature and pressure.
E.    When sea level has been carried in to within five to twelve miles of the summit.

------------------------------------------------------------------
Q33: Which of the following best describes the purpose of the sentence in lines 23-25 (“The Chinese…the British”)?
A.    Introduce a definition
B.    Signal a transition in focus
C.    Summarize the p‘，receding paragraph
D.    Draw a contrast between two different theories.
E.    Present information that contradicts the preceding paragraph.


Q34: Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a possible source of error in surveying mountain elevation?
A.    Mirages
B.    Refraction
C.    Inaccurate instruments
D.    Variations in sea level
E.    Uncertainty about the exact point to be measured

---------------------------------------------------------------
Q35: The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. provide details about improvements to a process
B. challenge the assumptions underlying a new method
C. criticize the way in which a failed project was carried out
D. call for new methods to solve an existing problem
E. explain the theory behind a new technique

官方答案是CBCA

Riff

2.2.2 地震
第一段，淺層地震是100~150,而深層地震是150~400。说传统中广大人民认为地震发生在浅层靠近地幔30mile的地方，然后讲浅层地震是怎么产生的，由于深处压力太大，所以没法达到地震的条件。
第二段，Yet其实有很多地震都是深层的，400mile以下的。然后提出两个理论mechanism解释深层地震。第一个理论提到热力和压力下石头结构变化会让物质crystalized成分变成固体，最后引起crystal structure的崩裂。但是有人说，物质A变成物质A'的过程太慢，不足以形成地震的必须条件。第二个理论，对此进行补充，所以应该是物质B的结构变化，变成B'，这个快，不仅仅限于low pressure，可以一下子稿定它的crystal structure。（问题：大意是物质A'和B'的共同点？自然就是他们的结构都改变过）
问题：
1、第二段是什么作用：
我选的是提供exception of the theory mentioned in the first passage。
［这题楼主用的排除法，选了一个带exception的选项，有一个选项挺迷惑的，因为它的叙述基本跟上面那个写法主旨题一样，神马alternative的，但是它出现了一个词叫phenomena，于是lz果断排除了］
［我选提出了对第一段的一个地震理论的特例］
2、深源地震两种形成机制的共同点
就是都摧残了一个晶体结构 crystal structure。
3、主旨题
选解决了一个长久存在的科学疑团
［应该是解释了一个scientific puzzle］
［explain a scientific puzzle］
4、问关于p型地震（浅层的）和m型地震（深的）下面哪个是对的
有个选项有点迷惑说他们都在400km以内 lz犹豫了一哈字还是选了结构改变那个

Riff

2.2.3 测量误差measurement error
第一段：先定义了系统测量误差是神马吧 然后说它很不好检测出来 比如有一个climate里的就刚被一个专家Thomas和他的团队检验出来。
第二段：说为啥他们发现了这个误差呢？就是因为资料显示at sea 比过去有0.5度的温度的drop，但是陆地上这个drop就没有了（这里有一道题，问说出现这个问题之后，which of the following initially suggested。。。就是说Thomas这个人立马想到了啥，文中说这个人立马想到了management error，答案里我选的是：有个different location结尾的选项。）。这专家就想可能是系统测量误差啦。
第三段：说这个误差是咋来的呢，就是英国人和美国人用的测海洋温度的方法不同。多年前数据主要是美国人采集的，美国人测量海洋温度都是通过一个高压温室的coolant pipe抽海水来量，导致温度升高；英国人则用桶装水测量。
第四段：说因为1939－1945年，二战时期都用美国的数据(美国的data占了80％)，二战后都用了英国的数据，所以就误差啦。不过气候专家说即使是有这个误差climate(temperature) trend还是没变的 。
题目：
1、有道题问说，如果1945年，科学家们做了which of the following，Thomas和他的同事就不会发现数据有这么多问题。
我选的是，accurate record啥啥啥，包括是美国还是英国人记录的数据。
［我选的是二战后一半以上的温度数据让美国人提供］
［科学家注意到英美测量方法的不同。］
［有两个选项不易区分，一个好像是climate researchers already note the different method used by British and America，另一个是climate researchers let US and Britain在同一海域探测。我选的后者，因为前者仅仅说note the difference，但并没有说用在modeling中。（提供人770分）］
2、主旨题
我选了一个特具体的什么an instance of 误差神马的
(我选的是一个XXX persistent error)
3、第三个问的是如果下列哪个是真的，科学家的推测就是错误的？
我选的是二战后，英国人的轮船上也装上了美国人的那一套测量设备。
4、如果下面发生则会weaken DT的解释
英国人在打起水样本的时候会等一会再测（暗示测的温度可能会偏高）
5、Dr. Thompson怎么会觉得measurement有问题而推荐researchers take into account the bias
我选的是因为发现不同的地方（海洋和陆地）在同一个时间的温度变化不同，好像是海洋里的温度变化更大还是更小，因为一般来说，如果是global warming 的话，全球的气温变化应该是一样的。

Riff

近似原文：(已确定哦！！激动哈！感谢vivian0311 MM)
60-Year-Old Bias in Data on Sea Temperatures
Every scientist knows about measurement bias, the systematic errors that can creep into data. A simplistic example would be a metal ruler that gives inaccurate readings when it expands in warmer temperatures.
Avoiding measurement bias can be impossible. Nobody’s perfect, after all, and neither is equipment. What’s important is recognizing bias and taking it into account when working with the data.
But it is not always easy to detect bias. A case in point is being reported in Nature, where researchers have uncovered measurement bias in six-decades-old data on global surface temperatures. The problem arises from how British and American ships measured the temperature of surface water.
David W. J. Thompson of Colorado State University and colleagues analyzed global mean surface temperatures from the 1880s to the present, tweaking(拧，扭，作调整) the data to remove the effects of El Niño and other “weather noise,” as Dr. Thompson described it. They discovered a sudden drop of 0.5 degree Fahrenheit in 1945, but just in data collected at sea, not on land — a hint that the drop might have something to do with the measurements.
At that time, British and American ships did much of the logging of sea temperatures worldwide. On British ships, crews measured the temperature of seawater collected in a bucket（水桶）. But since about 1939, most American ships had switched to measuring the temperature of seawater as it was drawn through an intake pipe for use as an engine coolant（冷冻剂,冷却液,散热剂）. Because of heat from the engine room, American measurements were generally higher.
After looking more closely at the data, Dr. Thompson said, they realized what had happened. Most of the wartime（战时） data came from American ships, with just 20 percent of the readings from British ones. But starting in August 1945, there was an abrupt switch. Nearly half the readings came from British ships. Because those readings are generally colder, Dr. Thompson said, that accounts for the sudden temperature drop.
Now that the bias has been recognized, climate researchers will need to take it into account in their models and simulations. But Dr. Thompson said the long-term trend, toward higher temperatures, would not be affected.
文章不是完全一样但是差不多

Riff

2.3.1暗物质
［3.4 宇宙的dark matter分析
第二篇是一个巨长的讲宇宙的，暂且叫做dark matter。说宇宙那么大，人眼能看到的各种射线啊，光啊什么的（visible particles）其实只占了5%，那剩下的是什么呢？剩下的物质（invisible particle）就被作者叫做“dark matter”，特征是Stars, loose gas,..........5% visual（有考题，我的答案就是把这句话同意改写，答案用词invisual）。
第二段说宇宙一开始应该怎么滴，说了一堆粒子啊什么的名称，有人说剩下的可能是p和n，（高亮开始）一个实验表明这种物质的速度比光速还要快blabla~~~ （高亮结束），但是目前观察到的没法证明，有说原因，这个时候作者提出了说一个理论还是标准的（词是一个standard）说这个可以用来推测。
第四段 主要讲neutronilo的,这里提到它不被electromagnetic怎么着(在比较俩个N不同的选项里出现)，特性是（有题）mass，stability，电中性。说n假如存在的话，它是最轻的，而且很stable的，如果不stable的话，就会分裂成两个什么东西。。。
题目：
1、就是那个理论（standard）是用来解决什么问题的
2、Neutrino 和 neutranilo的描述哪个正确(以下简称n1,n2)
       
（1）n2在宇宙初期不被electromagnetic影响(我犹豫了下,文中是提到有,但是没有前面的宇宙初期的限定,我没选)
       
（2）n2比n1重.(我选的这个)

（3）n1不stable(文中没提)

（4）n2在cosmic中实际上还没被发现?(我排除了)
3、新提到的n特性是：
mass，stability，电中性。
4、主题题。。。
5、高亮的实验的作用

记得的选项是:（1）回答段首的问题。（2）支持前面那句话"nor more than"。（3）为了第三段什么的。我选了第二个       
［我选的解释前面的假设什么的好像］
最后一段什么作用
As a heavy, stable particle, the lightest neutralino is an excellent candidate to comprise the universe's cold dark matter. In many models the lightest neutralino can be produced thermally in the hot early universe and leave approximately the right relic abundance to account for the observed dark matter. A lightest neutralino of roughly 10–10000 GeV is the leading weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter candidate.
Neutralino dark matter could be observed experimentally in nature either indirectly or directly. In the former case, gamma ray and neutrino telescopes look for evidence of neutralino annihilation in regions of high dark matter density such as the galactic or solar center. In the latter case, special purpose experiments such as the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) seek to detect the rare impacts of WIMPs in terrestrial detectors. These experiments have begun to probe interesting supersymmetric parameter space, excluding some models for neutralino dark matter, and upgraded experiments with greater sensitivity are under development.］
第一段说，天文学家们最近开始观察某东西MACHO(massive compact halo objects)，然后介绍它一堆特性。密度跟行星差不多，但是是太阳的1/10 占宇宙重量的90% 。
第二段说，传统的探测g物质的方法不能用了，得用新方法，是通过暗黑物质对其他星球的光造成的折射这种原理进行的，如果天文学家正在看某星星，这个MACHO物质如果刚好穿过了，产生的一种类似于日食（及光亮度下降）的现象，定义现象A，这时候这个物质就能被观测到。
第三段说，天文学家发现说，MACHO物质在galaxy之内的数量比想象中多［观测到的A明显比预计的要多］，但是没有更多的更深入的研究，天文学家不会冒昧的猜测它的数量之类的，他们的方法还待改进，而且在改进之前他们不会公开他们的研究成果。［看到过暗黑物质，但不如设想能看到的多。而且其实它们主要在我们的星系，而不在outer space, where orginally expected to have more黑物质(此处有题)］
题目：
1、考到说，天文学家之前没有预料到啥？
选那个galaxy之下数量比想象中多。

Riff

In the 1980's, astronomer Bohdan Paczynski proposed a way of determining whether the enormous dark halo constituting the outermost part of the Milky Way galaxy is composed of MACHO's(massive compact halo objects), which are astronomical objects too dim(昏暗的，模糊的) to be visible.  Paczynski reasoned that if MACHO's make up this halo, a MACHO would occasionally drift(漂流，漂移) in front of a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a bright galaxy near the Milky Way.  The gravity of a MACHO that had so drifted, astronomers agree, would cause the star's light rays, which would otherwise diverge, to bend together so that, as observed from Earth, the star would temporarily appear to brighten, a process known as micro lensing.  Because many individual stars are of intrinsically(本质地，内在地，固有地) variable brightness, some astronomers have contended that the brightening of intrinsically variable stars can be mistaken for micro lensing.  However, whereas the different colors of light emitted by an intrinsically variable star are affected differently when the star brightens, all of a star's colors are equally affected by micro lensing.  Thus, if a MACHO magnifies a star's red light tenfold, it will do the same to the star's blue light and yellow light.  Moreover, it is highly unlikely that a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud will undergo micro lensing more than once, because the chance that a second MACHO would pass in front of exactly the same star is minuscule(极小的).


Question #55.  639-01  (23881-!-item-!-188;#058&000639-01)
It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would constitute the strongest evidence of the micro lensing of a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud?

(A) The brightness of such a star is observed to vary at irregular intervals.
(B) The brightening of such a star is observed to be of shorter duration than the brightening of neighboring stars.
(C) The red light of such a star is observed to be brighter than its yellow light and its blue light.
(D) The red light, yellow light, and blue light of such a star are observed to be magnified temporarily by the same factor.
(E) The red light of such a star is observed to have increased tenfold.

Question #56.  639-04  (23927-!-item-!-188;#058&000639-04)
According to the passage, Paczynski's theory presumes that if MACHO's constituted the Milky Way's dark halo, occasionally a MACHO would

(A) drift so as to lie in a direct line between two stars in the outer Milky Way
(B) affect the light rays of a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud with the result that the star would seem for a time to brighten
(C) become obscured as a result of the micro lensing of a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud
(D) temporarily increase the apparent brightness of a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud by increasing the gravity of the star
(E) magnify each color in the spectrum of a star in the Large Magellanic Cloud by a different amount

Question #57.  639-06  (23973-!-item-!-188;#058&000639-06)
The passage is primarily concerned with

(A) outlining reasons why a particular theory is no longer credited by some astronomers
(B) presenting data collected by a researcher in response to some astronomers' criticism of a particular line of reasoning
(C) explaining why a researcher proposed a particular theory and illustrating how influential that theory has been
(D) showing how a researcher's theory has been used to settle a dispute between the researcher and some astronomers
(E) describing a line of reasoning put forth by a researcher and addressing a contention concerning that line of reasoning

Riff

2.3.2某星球北极上的冰
［3.5 土星（Saturn）的一个E卫星
第一段，土星（Saturn）的有一个卫星E和其他卫星都不同，它上面有固体冰，plains of craters（细节题）,科学家认为这是heat T作用的结果（我理解为加热作用。。。），但是E卫星的质量太小，本不应该产生heat T作用。
于是派出了人造卫星去观察（本观察的是plains of craters），发现它不仅有固体snow，南半球外层还有水蒸气和生物化合物（细节题，compounds和organism替换），这些按理说都应该是heat T产生的，于是科学家开始分析为什么这么小的卫星会产生heat T作用。人造卫星先飞近了去看，发现有水蒸气和生物化合物，然后又飞了第二次，发现E有而其他卫星没有一种什么东西，从而证明这种特殊现象不是望远镜GLITCH的原因，是确实存在的（本段有题，问的是人造卫星去照卫星E的作用）
第三段：前面有讲了这个现象可能是由于ROCK什么的。这里关于ROCK的一两句是没有考题 的，大家可以略读，直接关注本段后半段即可第一个提出的猜想是由于潮汐作用，受土星另一个卫星的影响，E卫星的运行轨道不是正圆形，在土星和另一卫星牵引力 下，可能是潮汐导致产生了加热作用。
第四段：但是这并不能完全解释为什么南半球表层的水蒸气etc，作者提出除潮汐外，南半球固体冰面下方应该有大量水存在，南半球在照片中是凹陷下去的，这是由于水密度比冰大，总之，作者认为是这两方面原因导致E卫星的的heat T作用。
题目：
1、第一段说为什么让人造飞船拍别的星球的照片和那个主角卫星做对比
答案是确保证据的accuracy。
2、一个问题是根据文章suggest这个主角卫星的energy部分来在于哪里？
应该是南边冰盖那个选项吧。
3、人造卫星去照卫星E的作用：
第一次去照应该是看看南半球为什么没有那么多被撞击的陨石坑，因为没有坑，说明地表非常新，没有被撞过，没有坑说明地表一直在移动，所以想去看看是为什么。其实想看看什么能量使得地表在更新移动，但是选项里面没有关于能量的。所以就选了导致这个猜测和疑问的坑。］
Mercury的气温因太阳日照影响高达340度C，但通过雷达显示Mercury pole北极有冰的光罩，第一段讲这整个现象。
第二段自问自答，温度高但为什么有冰可以存在 (有题问此句function)。原因为：（1）说它的旋转轴由于和轨道成直角，mercury axis vertical，所以太阳光不能直射南北极点。（2）两边的poles的冰层上面还有一些ice caps存在，ice caps上有debris覆盖，可以prevent them（冰块）from融化。
题目：
1、有一道问题是问水星南北极的不同
2、第二段自问自答，温度高但为什么有冰可以存在，有题问此句function
答：提出问题，后面给出解答

Riff

2.3.3  clock一种异常准确的机械钟
第一段：说这种钟可以说是世界上最后的机械钟了，而且有两个，一个在爱丁堡，一个在某observing station(记不清了，但此处无题)。这种钟就两个钟摆(pendulum), the first 在一个真空(vacuum)的容器中(此处对真空有题)，另一个来管钟的各指针(大概是这个意思)。第一个钟摆会适时第第二个钟摆信号，来进行适度调整。这个钟就是靠这个运行的
第二段：主要讲这种钟如何准确，有一些数字。最后一句说，利用这个钟测出了日月引力对地环转速的影响(这有一题)［发现地球季节性变化］
第三段：讲在1984年做的一个试验，将这种机械种与automatic clock做比较，结果发现(一堆数字比较)。后又说日月引力，不但能影响海潮，还能影响陆地。而这种引力会使机械种有一定的误差。
第四段：主要讲日月引力怎么样对陆地也造成影响(好像没什么题)。
问题：
1、主旨题：
我选的是某样clock的发明和组成。
［我觉得应该选讨论一种设备的准确性］
［我选的好像是衡量一个东东(就是钟)功能准确不准确什么的。］
2、通过运用这个东西在XX学，发现了什么？
我选的是发现地球的季节性的什么什么变化。
3、这个东东里面有个chamber（内膛）是干神马的？
我选的是有个什么mechanism与second什么鬼东东相连，相互影响。
4、作者最有可能同意什么：
乱选的，不记得了。貌似是选1921年以前没这种类似的东东存在。
5、得有一道题问的是那个神钟导致了什么伟大发现
我选的seasonal rotation的改写的那个
[我选发现地球地面（ground）和ocean一样会有tide的变化（具体记不清了。。。反正有关键词 ground，tide，change甚么的）。是文中一句话的改写，那句话后面还说了是如何变化的。
迷惑选项：发现地球rotation yearly change，文中说的是seasonal，不是from year to year。（或者相反，反正大家考的时候留心！）]
6、primary pendulum（钟摆）哪个true
答案我选：它是被firmly sealed（密封）的，因为文中说是真空。
7、有一道题很阴说作者文中直接的说这个钟为什么现象提供了证据
千万记得不是土地的tidal movement，而应该选地转速度一年里的速度不一样（seasonal对应答案的one time in the year from another）
8、Which of the following can NOT be experimented in 1984?
基金主人选了一个更准确的钟。

Riff

网上找到的，据说仿真度较高，请大家仔细阅读

　　The Shortt clock had two pendulums. The first, known as the master, swung freely in an evacuated case. Its only job was to synchronize(协调，使同步发生) the swing of the second pendulum, called the slave, which was housed in a neighboring cabinet. Every 30 seconds the slave sent an electrical signal to give a nudge(轻推) to the master. In return, via an elaborate(复杂的) electromechanical(机电的) link, the master ensured that the slave never got out of step.
　　Shortt clocks were standard provision in astronomical observatories of the 1920s and 1930s, and are credited with keeping time to better than 2 milliseconds a day. Many were on record as losing or gaining no more than 1 second a year – a stability of one part in 30 million. The first indications of seasonal variations in the Earth’s rotation were gleaned(收集) by the use of Shortt clocks.
　　In 1984 Pierre Boucheron carried out a study of a Shortt clock which had survived in the basement of the US Naval Observatory since 1932. Using the modern optical(视力的，光学的) sensing equipment instead of the electromechanical coupling, he measured its rate against the observatory’s atomic clocks for a month. He found that it was stable to 200 microseconds a day over this period, equivalent to two to three parts in a billion. What is more, the data also reveal that the clock was sensing the distortion of the Earth due to tides from the Moon and the Sun.

Riff

2.3.4月亮的形成
第一段讲月球形成的，一开始提出3个假说：分裂说Fission（从地球spin甩出去的），捕获说capture（被地球引力吸住的），共生说commensalism（跟地球一起形成的）。
第二段说这三种都不对，如果是分裂，成份应该跟地球相似，应该月球和地球整个系统转速更快；如果是捕获，那么月亮这个独立的星速度应该更慢，以至于能落入地球的系统中［应该整个系统速度更快，因为不可能让月球减速到可以捕获的程度］；如果是共生，月球缺少某些足够的星球形成具备的元素。并且，如果是抛出去的，月球应该具备和地球类似的一些物质Volatile mental，如锌zinc。如果是同期形成的，月球的铁内核应该跟地球相似，所以应该比现在的更大，可是现在月球的铁核太小。
第三段提出新假说，撞击说collision，说月球是地球根行星级天体碰撞产生的，这个假说可以解释月球成分铁核和运行速度。说以前有一个星体和地球撞了一下，撞出去的地球的物质就那个星体一起形成了月亮，易挥发金属少是因为擦肩而过时的温度使得这些金属灰发了，同时还强调是成一定角度的撞击不是直接的对撞(not head to head)，所以形体的速度变慢了［core小了］。
题目：
1、有问题问第三段的作用
就是介绍这个好的理论咯，它解释了很多之前的理论无法解释的点。
2、如果俘获论是正确的话，月球对地球而应该体现出什么样的特性。
我选了好像是spin faster 还是slower 大家做的时候自己关注
3、问作者对collision这个理论的态度
4、问这篇文章的结构
我选了提出了几个存在问题的理论最后提出了一个较完美的理论。
5、一下哪个点成立可以削弱the objection to the 3者之一的一个理论
选项无非就是根据第二段内容，改了些月球当前的特性。记得有科学家对月球表面元素的分析有错误，月球crater的厚度被低估还是什么的
6、主旨题
应该是提供证据否认前三个，并在此基础上证明第四个说法
［分别有3个题，都是细节题针对三种理论。
答案应该是：
1、月亮与地球spin的关系看出分裂理论不成立
2、由月亮的core的构成可以判断共生理论
3、由月亮的size］