《IBT备考导航》之三十七：新航道李传伟老师详解IBT阅读

creativity

笔者对于国内外考试研究多年，除了著有相关书籍外，还亲自教授。关于托福考试，曾与人合著《TOEFL阅读高分对策》，成为坊间流行的参考书。蛰居剑桥期间，利用ETS出版的新托福资料，加上多家著名出版机构的新托福资料，对新托福进行了深入研究，并将研究成果证之于实践，辅导新托福考生，效果良好。为了惠及更多的考生，今将研究成果公之于众。首先推出的是阅读，笔者将结合新托福样题（ETS官方网站上有），对新托福的几种题型进行分析，给出正确的做题方法。这次分析的题型是推理题。

一、 推理题的标志

推理题的题干中一般含有infer, imply, most likely, least likely, probably等词，分为有共性的推理题和无共性的推理题两大类。

二、 推理题的做法

对于无共性的推理题，也就是题干中无线索的，一般使用排除法，即根据各个选项的关键词回原文定位，通过排除法得出正确答案。

对于有共性的推理题，也就是题干中有线索的，可以先圈定题干中的关键词，根据关键词回原文定位，然后进行推理。推理题主要有下列思路：

1． 一般对比推理

ETS设计推理题的手段不多，根据两个事物的对比特征出题是其中之一。问其中一个事物的特征时，只要将与之形成对比的另一个事物的特征否定掉就可以了。例如：

It should be obvious that cetaceans?whales, porpoises, and dolphins?are mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke and blowhole cannot disguise their affinities with land-dwelling mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like.

2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about early sea otters?

 It is not difficult to imagine what they looked like.

 There were great numbers of them.

 They lived in the sea only.

 They did not leave many fossil remains.

根据关键词sea otters定位第四句：However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds…，由原文的unlike可知sea otters和pinnipeds两种动物与whales形成对比，而且很难想象原始的whales的样子；根据“一般对比推理”思路， 可以推出“原始的sea otters的样子不难想象”。第一个选项表达了此意，为正确答案。

2． 时间对比推理

这种思路常被考到。在这种推理中，一般有两个形成对比的时间段，它们所具有的特征一般相反。当题干问一个时间段的特征时，只要将与之相反的时间段的特征否定掉就可以了。

例一：

Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country’s impressive population growth….

…It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial Revolution.

…

It can be inferred from the passage that before the Industrial Revolution

(A) families were larger.

(B) population statistics were unreliable.

(C) the population grew steadily.

(D) economic conditions were bad.

工业革命之后与工业革命之前两个时间形成对比。既然工业革命之后西方世界的家庭变小了，那么工业革命之前的家庭一定比较大。因此（A）为正确答案。

例二：

Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film.

What can be inferred from the passage about the majority of films made after 1927?

(A) They were truly “silent.”

(B) They were accompanied by symphonic orchestras.

(C) They incorporated the sound of the actors’ voices.

(D) They corresponded to specific musical compositions.

1927年前后形成对比。既然1927年以前的电影只有音乐而没有配音，那么1927年之后的电影一定有。所以（C）为正确答案。

例三：

“…The nineteenth century brought with it a burst of new discoveries and inventions that revolutionized the candle industry and made lighting available to all. In the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, a process was developed to refine tallow (fat from animals )with alkali and sulfuric acid. The result was a product called stearin. Stearin is harder and burns longer than unrefined tallow. This breakthrough meant that it was possible to make tallow candles that would not produce the usual smoke and rancid odor. Stearins were also derived from palm oils, so vegetable waxes as well as animal fats could be used to make candles …”

Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about candles before the nineteenth century?

 They did not smoke when they were burned.

 They produced a pleasant odor as they burned.

 They were not available to all.

 They contained sulfuric acid.

问题：关于19世纪以前的蜡烛，从第一段可以推出下列哪一点？

这道题的题干中有“19世纪以前”这一时间，由此可见它属于“时间对比推理”思路。原文首句指出：“…19世纪带来了大量新发现和发明，使蜡烛业发生了革命性的变化，所有人都能用蜡烛照明。” 根据“时间对比推理”思路，由于19世纪以前的情况与19世纪形成对比，而19世纪所有人能用蜡烛照明，那么在19世纪之前，并非所有人都能用上蜡烛。第三个选项 “They were not available to all”表达了这一意思，为正确答案。

3．集合概念推理

集合概念推理也可以称之为百分比推断，它指的是在一个集合中，包含两个相对的方面，共同构成一个大的集合。一方所占的比例减少意味着另一方所占比例的增加；反之，一方所占的比例增加意味着另一方所占比例的减少。根据这一思路，可以由集合中一方的数量变化推断另一方的消减。

例一：

A folk culture is small, isolated, cohesive, conservative, nearly self-sufficient group that is homogeneous in custom and race, with a strong family or clan structure and highly developed rituals. …Unaltered folk cultures no longer exist in industrialized countries such as the United States and Canada….

By contrast, a popular culture is a large heterogeneous group, often highly individualistic and constantly changing.

22.What does the author imply about the United States and Canada?

(A) They value folk cultures.

(B) They have no social classes.

(C) They have popular cultures.

(D) They do not value individualism.

原文谈到folk culture 和popular culture两种文化，它们之间形成对比。既然美国和加拿大不再存在folk culture，那么它们就有popular culture。因此（C）为正确答案。

例二：

Both the number and the percentage of people in the United States involved in nonagricultural pursuits expanded rapidly during the half century following the civil war, with some of the most dramatic increases occurring in the domains of transportation, manufacturing, and trade and distribution.

What can be inferred from the passage about the agricultural sector of the economy after the Civil War?

(A) New technological developments had little effect on farmers.

(B) The percentage of the total population working in agriculture declined.

(C) Many farms destroyed in the war were rebuilt after the war.

(D) Farmers achieved new prosperity because of better rural transportation.

文中指出：非农业人口的数量和比例都增加了。由此可知农业人口的数量和比例下降了。所以（B）为正确答案。

注:本文撰写时参考了李传伟已经出版的《TOEFL阅读高分对策》和即将出版的《新托福阅读高分对策》。

creativity

题型篇之三：举例说明概述题

转自 http://www.newchannel.org/bbs/viewtopic.jsp?tid=27815

北京新航道学校 李传伟

一、问题形式
举例说明概述题，也叫例证题，被ETS称为“修辞目的题”(rhetorical purpose question)，基本形式如下：
The author uses X as an example of…
Why does the author mention X?
The author discusses X in paragraph 2 in order to…

二、解题技巧
举例的目的在于反映概述，所以这类题的一般解题技巧是：绕过例子看概述，对概述进行同义替换的就是正确答案。具体技巧如下：

1．例子说明概述
举例说明概述题经常对应原文的举例for example。做题时可以先根据问题中的关键词确定例子的位置，再阅读例子前的那个句子，这个句子一般就是例子所说明的概述，也就是答案对应的地方。例如，

…sensitivity to physical laws is thus an important consideration for the maker of applied-art objects. It is often taken for granted that this is also true for the maker of fine-art objects. This assumption misses a significant difference between the two disciplines. Fine-art objects are not constrained by the laws of physics in the same way that applied-art objects are. Because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. Sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg…”

Why does the author discuss the bronze statues of horses created by artists in the early Italian Renaissance ?
 To provide an example of a problem related to the laws of physics that a fine artist must overcome
 To argue that fine artists are unconcerned with the laws of physics
 To contrast the relative sophistication of modern artists in solving problems related to the laws of physics
 To note an exceptional piece of art constructed without the aid of technology

根据问题中的关键词bronze statues of horses定位段末，这里有标志词for example，说明它是对前面所说的内容进行例证。前一句These are problems that must be overcome by the artist…就是概述：艺术家必须克服这些问题，因为这些问题破坏他们对艺术作品的构思。这里所说的问题就是上文谈论的物理规律对美术的限制，如必须考虑制作材料的物理特性。而本题对应的原文以例子说明这一点：由于铜的特性，马抬起的前腿下必须有支撑物。综上所述，例子说明它前面的概述，第一个选项符合此意，为正确答案。

又如，
One of the most puzzling aspects of the paintings is their location. Other rock paintings?for example, those of Bushmen in South Africa?are either located near cave entrances or completely in the open. Cave paintings in France and Spain, however, are in recesses and caverns far removed from original cave entrances.

Why does the author mention Bushmen in South Africa in paragraph 2?
To suggest that ancient artists from all over the world painted animals on rocks

To contrast the location of their rock paintings to those found at Lascaux
To support the claim that early artists worked in cramped spaces
To give an example of other artists who painted in hidden locations
与上一题类似，本题的例子Bushmen in South Africa在原文也有标志词for example，
因此这一例子的目的是为了说明它前面的那句话，即这些绘画的位置令人费解。作者以对比的手法来说明这一点：Bushmen in South Africa的绘画常位于洞口或洞外，而法国和西班牙的洞穴绘画（本文所说的绘画）却位于远离最初洞口的深处。由此可见，Bushmen in South Africa的例子是为了说明Lascaux绘画位置的怪异。第二个选项符合此意，为正确答案。

2．例子与概述合二为一

有时例子与概述合二为一，它们分别出现于从句和主句中，或者出现于同一个分句中。例如，

Scholars offer three related but different opinions about the mysterious origin and significance of these paintings. One opinion is that the paintings were a record of seasonal migrations made by herds. Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. Unfortunately, this explanation fails to explain the hidden locations, unless the migrations were celebrated with secret ceremonies.

Why does the author mention secret ceremonies?
To present a common opinion held by many scholars
To suggest a similarity between two opinions held by scholars
To suggest a possible explanation for a weakness in an opinion expressed in the passage
To give evidence that contradicts a major opinion expressed in the passage
问题中的关键词secret ceremonies出现于段落末句的从句中：unless the migrations were celebrated with secret ceremonies。在同一句子的主句部分，作者指出：不幸的是，这一解释未能说明为何绘画的位置要隐蔽…，这等于说这一解释不能成立；接着在问题所对应的从句中补充说明上述解释成立所必须满足的条件：除非迁徙的庆祝是秘密进行的。这等于说这一解释缺乏这一条件。第三个选项符合此意，为正确答案。

3．一段中两个相距较远的例子说明该段主题句
问题中涉及同一段中两个例子、而且它们不在一处时，通常它们说明该段主题句。例如，
Mass transportation revised the social and economic fabric of the American city in three fundamental ways. It catalyzed physical expansion, it sorted out people and land uses, and it accelerated the inherent instability of urban life. By opening vast areas of unoccupied land for residential expansion, the omnibuses, horse railways, commuter trains, and electric trolleys pulled settled regions outward two to four times more distant from city centers than they were in the pre-modern era. In 1850, for example, the borders of Boston lay scarcely two miles from the old business district; by the turn of the century the radius extended ten miles. Now those who could afford it could live far removed from the old city center and still commute there for work, shopping, and entertainment. The new accessibility of land around the periphery of almost every major city sparked an explosion of real estate development and fueled what we now know as urban sprawl. Between 1890 and 1920, for example, some 250,000 new residential lots were recorded within the borders of Chicago, most of them located in outlying areas. Over the same period, another 550,000 were plotted outside the city limits but within the metropolitan area. Anxious to take advantage of the possibilities of commuting, real estate developers added 800,000 potential building sites to the Chicago region in just thirty years ? lots that could have housed five to six million people.

18. Why does the author mention both Boston and Chicago?
(A) To demonstrate positive and negative effects of growth.
(B) To show that mass transit changed many cities.
(C) To exemplify cities with and without mass transportation.
(D) To contrast their rates of growth
问题中的关键词Boston与Chicago（为了便于查找，笔者给它们加了下划线）是两个例子，它们前面分别有提示词for example。由于两个例子位于同一段，而且不在一处，因此只能说明本段主题，也就是首句：Mass transportation revised the social and economic fabric of the American city in three fundamental ways。选项(B)符合此意，为正确答案。

限于篇幅，举例说明概述题的其他情况，如一段中几个相连的例子说明的是第一个例子前的那句话，还有“例子在前，概述在后”等情况，恕不详述。

（本文撰写时参考了李传伟已出版的《TOEFL阅读高分对策》和即将出版的《新托福阅读高分对策》。）

creativity

名师新托福阅读列举题全解析

转自  http://www.newchannel.org/bbs/viewtopic.jsp?tid=27853

北京新航道学校副校长 李传伟教授

一、问题形式
列举题，也叫排除列举题，ETS称之为“否定事实信息题”（negative factual information question）。基本形式如下：
According to the passage, which of the following is NOT true of X?
The author’s description of X mentions all of the following EXCEPT

二、解题技巧
列举题的基本思路是排除，排除与原文相符的选项，与原文相矛盾的选项或原文未提到的选项是正确答案。注意问题中的否定词Not 和EXCEPT。

1．列举题的解题步骤
1）看题干找关键词
问题中有关键词的，可以根据它定位，然后将四个选项与定位的地方进行比较。如果没有关键词，可以先定位于上一个问题对应的段落之后的段落。
2） 阅读四个选项
题干中没有线索的，可以阅读四个选项，总结其中的共同点进行定位，或者根据各个选项中的关键词一一进行定位。
3） 排除与原文相符的选项
将各个选项与原文比较以后，排除其中符合原文意思的选项，剩下的一个选项，或者与原文相矛盾，或者在原文未提到，就是正确答案。例如，
The opposite of an opportunist is a competitor. These organisms tend to have big bodies, are long-lived, and spend relatively little effort each year on reproduction. An oak tree is a good example of a competitor. A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, outcompeting all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil. The leaves of an oak tree taste foul because they are rich in tannins, a chemical that renders them distasteful or indigestible to many organisms. The tannins are part of the defense mechanism that is essential to longevity. Although oaks produce thousands of acorns, the investment in a crop of acorns is small compared with the energy spent on building leaves, trunk, and roots. Once an oak tree becomes established, it is likely to survive minor cycles of drought and even fire. A population of oaks is likely to be relatively stable through time, and its survival is likely to depend more on its ability to withstand the pressures of competition or predation than on its ability to take advantage of chance events. It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blend of some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics.

All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 7 as contributing to the longevity of an oak tree EXCEPT
the capacity to create shade
leaves containing tannin
the ability to withstand mild droughts and fire
the large number of acorns the tree produces
本题对应第七段（见上文），其中前三个选项所说的条件（从第四句开始）都对oak tree的长寿有利，而第四个选项所说的“acorns的数量”并未与oak tree的寿命直接联系在一起，因此为正确答案。

2．列举的两种形式
1）集中列举
集中列举的形式有：三个名词或词汇连续出现，各个名词或词汇之间以逗号隔开；三个短语连续出现；三个句子连续出现。对于集中列举，只需根据题干或选项定位原文，排除在原文的集中列举之处出现的三个选项，剩下的一个选项为正确答案。例如，
They used the pots they made for cooking, storing food, and carrying things from place to place.

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as a way that ancient people used pottery?
(A) To hold food.
(B) To wash clothes.
(C) To cook.
(D) To transport objects.

2）分散列举
分散列举的各项可能出现于同一段落之中，或分布于全文各段。对于分散列举，需要根据题干或选项定位原文，将各个选项与所对应的原文一一进行比较，在原文未提到或与原文相矛盾的选项为正确答案。例如，
Perhaps the most striking quality of satiric literature is its freshness, its originality of perspective. Satire rarely offers original ideas. Instead it presents the familiar in a new form. Satirists do not offer the world new philosophies. What they do is look at familiar conditions from a perspective that makes these conditions seem foolish, harmful or affected. Satire jars us out of complacence into a pleasantly shocked realization that many of the values we unquestioningly accept are false. Don Quixote makes chivalry seem absurd, Brave New World ridicules the pretensions of science, A Modest Proposal dramatizes starvation by advocating cannibalism. None of these ideas is original. Chivalry was suspect before Cervantes, humanists objected to the claims of pure science before Aldous Huxley and people were aware of famine before Swift. It was not the originality of the idea that made these satires popular. It was the manner of expression the satiric method that made them interesting and entertaining. Satires are read because they are aesthetically satisfying works of art, not because they are morally wholesome or ethically instructive. They are stimulating and refreshing because with commonsense briskness they brush away illusions and secondhand opinions. With spontaneous irreverence, satire rearranges perspectives, scrambles familiar objects into incongruous juxtaposition and speaks in a personal idiom instead of abstract platitude.

Satire exists because there is need for it. It has lived because readers appreciate a refreshing stimulus, an irreverent reminder that they lived in a world of platitudinous thinking, cheap moralizing, and foolish philosophy. Satire serves to prod people into an awareness of truth though rarely to any action on behalf of truth. Satire tends to remind people that much of what they see, hear, and read in popular media is sanctimonious, sentimental, and only partially true. Life resembles in only a slight degree the popular image of it. Soldiers rarely hold the ideals that movies attribute to them, nor do ordinary citizens devote their lives to unselfish service of humanity. Intelligent people know these things but tend to forget them when they do not hear them expressed.

The various purposes of satire include all of the following EXCEPT
(A) introducing readers to unfamiliar situations
(B) brushing away illusions
(C) reminding readers of the truth
(D) exposing false values.
这道列举题的选项分布于文中各处，是一道分散列举题。其中选项（B）对应第一段倒数第二句…they brush away illusions and secondhand opinions，选项（C）对应第二段第三句：Satire serves to prod people into an awareness of truth though rarely to any action on behalf of truth，（D）对应第一段第五句：Satire jars us out of complacence into a pleasantly shocked realization that many of the values we unquestioningly accept are false。（A）与原文第一段的意思“satire并无新意，只是表达独特”相矛盾，符合题意，为正确答案。

（本文撰写时参考了李传伟已出版的《TOEFL阅读高分对策》和即将出版的《新托福阅读高分对策》。）

creativity

题型篇之二：指代题

转自 http://www.newchannel.org/bbs/viewtopic.jsp?tid=27746

北京新航道学校 李传伟

一、问题形式
被考的文章中有一个词或词组被加亮，这个词通常是一个代词或名词。指代题的形式如下：
The word (or phrase) X in the passage refers to

二、解题步骤
1．根据解题技巧确定答案
2．代入原文验证，看语义、逻辑和语法上是否通顺

三、基本原则
1．就近指代
所谓就近指代，就是被指代对象通常在指代词前不远处，如本句或上一句中。有时也出现在更前面的一句中。例如，
Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. Researchers are evaluating how serious this problem is and hope to find ways to eliminate or sharply reduce this problem.

The phrase this problem in the passage refers to
interference with the flight patterns of migrating birds in certain areas
building ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines
the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines
meeting the demands of environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy

本题涉及的是一个词组this problem。寻找这一词组的指代对象时只需向上搜索就行。根据就近原则，前一句中的主语the killing of birds of prey by wind turbines可以初步确定为答案。将其代入原文，符合语义和逻辑，因此第三个选项为正确答案。第一个选项和第三个选项都和this problem相距较远，而且代入时语义和逻辑上不通，因此为干扰选项。

2．数格一致
被指代对象通常与指代词在数（如单数或复数）和格（主格或宾格）两方面相同。如单数代词one指代单数名词，复数代词they指代复数名词。

四、主要思路
1．主从复合句中的指代
在主从复合句中，第二句的代词主语经常指代第一句的名词主语。例如，
The fins are stiff, smooth, and narrow, qualities that also help cut drag. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours.

The word they in the passage refers to
qualities
fins
grooves
depressions
在这一例子中，从句so that they…中的代词主语they指代主句的名词主语the fins，因此第二个选项为正确答案。

如果主从复合句中一个句子（可以是主句，也可以是从句）使用被动语态，包含被动语态的句子中的主语常指代另一句中的宾语。例如，
Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.

The word none in the passage refers to
food
plant or animal
energy
big body
在本例中，if引导的从句使用了被动语态，代词主语none指代前面主句中的宾语energy。因此，第三个选项为正确答案。

2．并列动词中的指代
如果一个句中有两个并列的动词，第二个动词的代词宾语经常指代前一个动词后的名词宾语。例如，
Artists are recognizing the distinction between public and private spaces, and taking that into account when executing their public commissions.

The word “that” in line 27 refers to
(A)contemporary art
(B)opportunity
(C)audience
(D)distinction
句中有两个并列的动词recognizing和 taking (into account)，其中recognizing的宾语是distinction，而taking 的宾语是that。根据上述技巧，that指代distinction。因此，（D）为正确答案。

3. 平行结构中的指代
平行结构主要包括some/most/many/such/each…, others…; not only…but also…; the former…the latter等。在这种结构中，平行结构两个部分的两个代词经常指代同一对象：前一句中的名词主语。例如，
In Southwest France in the 1940s, playing children discovered Lascaux Grotto, a series of narrow cave chambers that contain huge prehistoric paintings of animals. Many of these beasts are as large as 16 feet (almost 5 meters). Some follow each other in solemn parades, but others swirl about, sideways and upside down.

The word others in the passage refers to
chambers
paintings
beasts
parades
原文包含平行结构some…others，它们都指代前一句中的名词主语beasts，因此第三个选项为正确答案。

4．所有格的指代
所有格代词经常指代其前面与其最接近的名词。例如，
Folk-made objects give way to their popular equivalent, usually because the popular item is more quickly or cheaply produced, is easier or time saving to use, or lends more prestige to the owner.

The word “their” in line 1 refers to
(A)folk
(B)nations
(C)countries
(D)objects

根据所有格指代的解题技巧，their指代前面位置最近的名词objects，因此（D）为正确答案。

5．指代的接力棒现象
这一现象是指被考的代词对应前面一个相同的代词，而前面的代词指代更前一句中的名词。例如，
While such interviews can be highly entertaining, they are not necessarily an accurate indication of public opinion. First, they reflect the opinions of only those people who appear at a certain location.

The word “they” in line 8 refers to
(A)North Americans
(B)news shows
(C)interviews
(D)opinions
在这一例子中，第二句中的代词they(reflect the opinions…)对应第一句中的they(are not…)，而第一个they指代前面从句中的名词主语interviews，那么第二个they也指代interviews，因此（C）为正确答案。

除了上述情况之外，其他指代，如定语从句中(of which…, in which…, from which…)的关系代词指代先行词，from there结构中的there指代前面最接近的地点名词等，限于篇幅，不再详述。
（本文撰写时参考了李传伟已出版的《TOEFL阅读高分对策》和即将出版的《新托福阅读高分对策》。）