vansonkated

many  thanks @@@

july_0112

79．The following appeared as part of a company memorandum.
“Adopting an official code of ethics regarding business practices may in the long run do our company more harm than good in the public eye. When one of our competitors received unfavorable publicity for violating its own code of ethics, it got more attention from the media than it would have if it had no such code. Rather than adopt an official code of ethics, therefore, we should instead conduct a publicity campaign that stresses the importance of protecting the environment and assisting charitable organizations.”
首先，为了支持“Adopting an official code of ethics regarding business practices may in the long run do our company more harm than good in the public eye.”这个观点，作者给出了以下的论据作为支持：
论据一：When one of our competitors received unfavorable publicity for violating its own code of ethics, it got more attention from the media than it would have if it had no such code.
反驳：我们假设作者给出的论据是一个事实，然而要知道this competitor的遭遇毕竟只是一个个案，不能够支持拥有official code of ethics regarding

july_0112

78．The following appeared in the editorial section of a monthly business newsmagazine.
“Most companies would agree that as the risk of physical injury occurring on the job increases, the wages paid to employees should also increase. Hence it makes financial sense for employers to make the workplace safer: they could thus reduce their payroll expenses and save money.”
观点一：Most companies would agree that as the risk of physical injury occurring on the job increases, the wages paid to employees should also increase.
首先，我们承认这个假设是正确的。
观点二：Hence it makes financial sense for employers to make the workplace safer: they could thus reduce their payroll expenses and save money.
反驳：遵循假设，作者提出这样的观点，让工作场所更加的安全，则可以decrease the risk of physical injury，那么就可以reduce the payroll expenses从而save money。然而要知道让工作场所更加安全不一定能够save money，因为建立一个更加安全的工作场所、改善工作场所的环境、维护一个安全的工作场所，有可能要花费更大一笔支出。另外，有一些工作场所是不可能变得更加地安全的，比如说police，他们面对的工作环境往往不是认为可以改变的。
此外，当工资达到一定的水平，哪怕the risk of physical injury降低了，也不可能因此而降低现有的工资水平，因为工人以及工会更愿意升工资而不是降工资，他们会努力维护他们的权益。因为workplace condition的改善而降低工资肯定会遭到反对，在冲突的过程中可能会带来更多的成本增加。
在承认假设的前提下，降低risk of physical injury的方式也不仅只有make workplace safe这么一种选择，比如可以通过给employees进行更多的安全技能培训、安全宣传，增强他们的自我保护能力和安全意识，这个成本或许会更低而且更加有效。
反驳假设：事实上，作者的假设本身也存在着问题。面对增加的risk of physical injury，companies也可以选择保持工资水平不变，然而给employees更新保险计划，提供更为合理的保险，以应对风险和损失。

july_0112

77．The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.
“In order to avoid the serious health threats associated with many landfills, our municipality should build a plant for burning trash. An incinerator could offer economic as well as ecological advantages over the typical old-fashioned type of landfill: incinerators can be adapted to generate moderate amounts of electricity, and ash residue for some types of trash can be used to condition garden soil.”
论点一：In order to avoid the serious health threats associated with many landfills, our municipality should build a plant for burning trash.
反驳：作者在这里提出，避免垃圾填埋带来的health treats的方式是建造垃圾焚烧场地，然而这绝对不是解决问题的唯一出路，比如完全可以改造landfills的技术来降低其对health的危害。
理由一：An incinerator could offer economic as well as ecological advantages over the typical old-fashioned type of landfill: incinerators can be adapted to generate moderate amounts of electricity, and ash residue for some types of trash can be used to condition garden soil.”
反驳：作者认为用燃烧炉燃烧垃圾的方式优越于typical old-fashioned type of landfill的原因incinerator有经济和环境上的优势，即改造的燃烧炉能够用于少量地发电，某些类型的灰烬还能够用来做花园土。
然而，非常明显的是作者对于incinerator的评价是不全面的，他有意避开了incinerator的缺点，诸如很重要的一点是，焚烧过程中产生的尾气如果处理不当的话，对于大气的污染将是很严重的，这也必然会危害到人类的健康，而这种危害可能比现有技术水平下的landfill更加糟糕。此外，垃圾焚烧必然要消耗能源，而且这笔消耗将会很大，事实上这对于环境和经济的发展也是很不利的。
此外作者也避免提及了landfill相对于incinerator的优点，比如landfill处理垃圾的单位成本会比incinerator低。这样的比较是不公平的，因此作者得出的结论是不足以具有很强说服力的。

july_0112

76．The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.
“This city should be able to improve existing services and provide new ones without periodically raising the taxes of the residents. Instead, the city should require that the costs of services be paid for by developers who seek approval for their large new building projects. After all, these projects can be highly profitable to the developers, but they can also raise a city’s expenses and increase the demand for its services.”
首先，作者针对的最终目的是improve existing services and provide new services，作者认为这笔钱的来源不应该是提高居民税收而增加的收入，而应该由developers who seek approval for their large new building projects来承担，并且给出了两条理由。
理由一：these projects can be highly profitable to the developers
反驳：假使这些projects的确具有很高的盈利，然而developers who seek approval for their large new building projects不一定能够最终得到项目，因此不一定能够从中获得盈利，那么the costs of the services不应当由他们承担。
此外，哪怕针对的的确是申请到项目的developers，然而无论是existing service还是new ones，都不会仅仅局限于large new building中，仅让这个群体来承担成本是不合理的。
另外，再高的盈利很可能也只是一种相对的说法，相对于其他项目盈利高并不能说明其本身盈利真的非常可观。再者，这些盈利的绝大部分很可能要用于下一轮的投资，投资的成本很高，如果require them to cover some or even all costs of services，很可能给其造成很大的负担，影响其持续的发展。
理由二：They can also raise a city’s expenses and increase the demand for its services
反驳：作者认为这些new projects会提高城市的消费并且更多地增加需求，这对于residents和城市更快发展都有比较大的压力，而作者认为developers who seek approval for their large new building projects应该承担这个成本。显然这是不对的，由上面的分析便可以知道不合理性。
此外，raise a city’s expenses和increase the demand for a city’s services对于城市的发展来说并不是坏事，有效地需求和消费能够保证长期的经济增长，并且这可以为政府带来更多的税收，对于政府来说也是有利的。

july_0112

75．The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a popular science and technology magazine.
“It is a popular myth that consumers are really benefiting from advances in agricultural technology. Granted-consumers are, on the average, spending a decreasing proportion of their income on food. But consider that the demand for food does not rise in proportion with their real income. As real income rises, therefore, consumers can be expected to spend a decreasing proportion of their income on food. Yet agricultural technology is credited with having made our lives better.”
论据一：Granted-consumers are, on the average, spending a decreasing proportion of their income on food.
反驳：首先，作者的假定存在问题，作者假定消费者福利的提高表现在他们在食物上花费的钱占收入的比例在减少。然而在讨论advances in agriculture technology时，关于benefits（welfare）的定义却不应当仅局限于此。比如，技术的进步使得custom能够吃到更加营养的食物，有更多的食物种类的选择并且能够享受到许多的农业副产品，这都能够反映其福利的提高。
论据二：But consider that the demand for food does not rise in proportion with their real income. As real income rises, therefore, consumers can be expected to spend a decreasing proportion of their income on food.
反驳：作者使用的支持“consider that the demand for food does not rise in proportion of their income on food.”存在问题，人们用于食物的开销占总收入的比例究竟会不会随着收入的增长而变化取决于人们的收入状况（income condition）。比如，一户收入不能保证家庭成员最基本food demand的家庭，当real income增加时，其对与食物的需求有极大的可能性随之而增加。
此外，假设整个国家的real income增加了，整体的物价水平很可能会上升，即使customs的food demand维持在一个不变的水平之上，其用于食物的整体支出有可能增加，并且增加的幅度有可能超过收入增加的幅度，那么对于食物的支出所占收入的比例应该是上升的。
第三，随着real income的增加，customs很可能转向更高质量并且价格更贵的食物，即使对于食物总量的需求没有增加，对于食物质量的需求却发生了变化，其用于食物的支出也可能随之增加并且使得这份支出占收入的比例增加。
总而言之，在考虑agriculture technology对于customs福利的影响时，作者选择的对于福利的评估指标，即基本假定存在问题，分析中考虑问题也不够全面，故作者无法反驳农业技术进步对于人们福利提高有影响这样一个结论。

july_0112

74.The following appeared as part of an article in an entertainment magazine.（没找到太多的错误……上网找吧，懒得想了~~~~(>_<)~~~~ ）
“A series of books based on the characters from a popular movie are consistently bestsellers in local bookstores. Seeking to capitalize on the book’s success, Vista Studios is planning to produce a movie sequel based on the books. Due to the success of the books and the original movie, the sequel will undoubtedly be profitable.”
论据一：A series of books based on the characters from a popular movie are consistently bestsellers in local bookstores.
反驳：在local bookstores中的bestsellers并不代表在整个国家乃至世界范围内都有很好的销量，而且作者也没给出关于时间的具体信息，我们无法得知是在几天内、几周内还是几个月内这一系列书是bestseller。
观点一：Due to the success of the books and the original movie, the sequel will undoubtedly be profitable.
反驳：the success of the books and the original movie与whether the sequel will be profitable之间不存在必然的因果关系。一部电影能否有好的盈利受到许多因素的影响，比如说如果电影的演员换了，观众对于原电影的忠诚很可能会使得他们拒绝接受新的电影。此外，一部电影的拍摄周期比较长，很难保证电影推出时观众依旧会对它感兴趣。电影推出时的经济状况和电影市场的竞争程度也会影响其盈利，比如说电影推出时正逢严重的经济危机或者有大的社会性灾难突然发生，电影的盈利就会受到很大的影响。
总而言之，一部电影能否盈利除了受到电影故事情节、人物、拍摄等电影内部因素的影响之外，还将受到经济状况、社会环境状况等许多外界不可控因素的影响。故作者的definitely profitable的论断是武断的。

july_0112

73．The following appeared as part of a memorandum from a government agency.
“Given the limited funding available for the building and repair of roads and bridges, the government should not spend any money this year on fixing the bridge that crosses the Styx River. This bridge is located near a city with a weakening economy, so it is not as important as other bridges; moreover, city population is small and thus unlikely to contribute a significant enough tax revenue to justify the effort of fixing the bridge.”
论据一：This bridge is located near a city with a weakening economy, so it is not as important as other bridges.
反驳：首先，一座桥所能够发挥的作用和价值并不取决于它所接近的城市的经济发展状况。For example，一座桥在一个小山村附近，然而如果这座桥是一条贸易通道的唯一必经之路，那么它对于trade and economy development的作用可想而知。
此外，作者没有给出更多的关于这座城市经济状况的信息，我们无法得知这样一个weakening in economy发生之前这座城市的经济状况，这种状况发展到了一个什么样的程度、是以一个什么速度进展的，我们也无法得知这个状况是由什么具体的原因引起的。无法得知这些具体的信息，我们便不能够做出武断的判断。For example，有可能整个国家的经济状况都处于下行阶段，几乎所有城市的经济发展都不太好，这个城市的经济衰落便不应该批判。
根据以上分析，作者没有充足的理由得出这座桥比起其他的桥更加不重要这样一个结论。
进一步说，或许这座城市十分有潜力，而桥对于其经济的发展有很大的影响，fixing of the bridge能够greatly boost the economy growth of this city，从而为整个地区、国家的经济起到positive influence。
论据二：Moreover, city population is small and thus unlikely to contribute a significant enough tax revenue to justify the effort of fixing the bridge.
反驳：城市的人数少不代表其经济实力不强，我们没有理由拒绝相信这座城市的人口虽然少，但是经济发展水平非常高，城市中有经济实力很强的经济增长支柱，能够为政府提供很可观的税收收入。

july_0112

72．The following appeared as part of an editorial in a campus newspaper.
“With an increasing demand for highly skilled workers, this nation will soon face a serious labor shortage. New positions in technical and professional occupations are increasing rapidly, while at the same time the local labor force is growing slowly. Moreover, the government is proposing to cut funds for aid to education in the near future.”
论据一：New positions in technical and professional occupations are increasing rapidly, while at the same time the local labor force is growing slowly.
反驳：对于技术和专业领域workers的需求增长很迅速和the local labor force的缓增长并不能直接说明什么问题：首先，对于the labor force（总劳动力）增长的缓慢并不代表对于workers of certain field增长的缓慢，或许整体上劳动力增长缓慢然而在technical and professional方面劳动力却有很大程度的增加。
此外，哪怕在这个领域的劳动力增长也跟不上需求的增加，作者也并没有给出“New positions in technical and professional occupations are increasing rapidly”这个事实究竟是在一个什么样的范围内说的，作者提到labor force增长的缓慢却是在当地（local）范围内说的。用别的地区或者是更大范围区域的数据与本地数据一起说明问题是不可取的（unreasonable）。
论据二：Moreover, the government is proposing to cut funds for aid to education in the near future.
反驳：作者并没有给予足够的信息告诉我们政府削减的究竟是哪方面的教育的投资，整体教育投资Funds的削减并不能代表在某个具体的教育领域投资的减少，很有可能是将用于某个领域的funds减少并在另外领域大量地增加投资。
此外，我们并不知道在减少投资之前教育经费的情况究竟如何，有可能事前政府投资于教育的经费处于过剩的状态，减少教育投资对于教育行业来说并不会有什么影响。
第三，in the near future并不能告诉我们具体的时间信息，政府在这项政策上也只正在计划的过程中。
第四，即使教育经费真的下降，也不代表教育质量和相应领域劳动力数量、质量的下降。
论点一：With an increasing demand for highly skilled workers, this nation will soon face a serious labor shortage.
反驳：根据作者的逻辑线条，作者似乎是用上面的两个论据支持了以上的这个观点。然而要知道，对于教育投资的减少不代表对于技术和专业技能人员的教育经费支持的下降，经费的下降也不代表劳动力数量和质量的下降。
此外，technical and professional workers与skilled workers也不是等同的概念，在任何领域都存在着skilled workers。
最后，对于skilled workers需求的增加并不代表国家将面临严重的劳动力短缺，毕竟skilled workers只是workers中的一小部分，skilled workers供给的不足不代表整个劳动力群体供给的不足。

july_0112

71．The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a regional newspaper.（写得很不好啊啊啊啊……）
“In response to petitions from the many farmers and rural landowners throughout our region, the legislature has spent valuable time and effort enacting severe laws to deter motorists from picking fruit off the trees, trampling through the fields, and stealing samples of foliage. But how can our local lawmakers occupy themselves with such petty vandalism when crime and violence plague the nation’s cities? The fate of apples and leaves is simply too trivial to merit their attention.”
观点一：But how can our local lawmakers occupy themselves with such petty vandalism when crime and violence plague the nation’s cities?
反驳：作者认为local lawmakers不应该在城市中的暴力犯罪蔓延时让petty vandalism占据他们宝贵的时间，然而作者给出的理由是“crime and violence plague the nation’s cities”，这显然是一个一般对特殊的错误。犯罪和暴力在城市蔓延只是一个普遍的phenomenon，并不代表在当地（local）会存在同样的问题，或许crime and violence对于当地的治安来说并不是问题。
此外，或许作者提起的region并不是城市，只是一个town，以agriculture为主业，那么local lawmakers spend much of their time on agriculture problems就是无可厚非的（to give no cause for much criticism）。
观点二：The fate of apples and leaves is simply too trivial to merit their attention.
反驳：就作者看来，the fate of apples and leaves is simply too trivial to merit their attention，local lawmakers根本无需在这些事务上花费时间。首先，作者从头至尾就没有提及how much time the local lawmakers have spent on enacting such laws，如果制定和执行这些法律花费了他们合理而正常的工作时间，没有理由对其提出批评。
其次，如果problems they are focusing on对于当地的development很重要的话，完全有必要在上面花费时间。
第三，对于residents的合理requirements and petitions，local lawmakers需要关注。