胡子长了

(疑似)原文未缩减 gitarrelieber
摘自Scientific American @ Jan 1990

The Yugoslav astronomer Milutin Milankovitch refined and formalized the hypothesis in the 1920’s and 1930’s.The astronomical pacemaker he advocated has three components, two that change the intensity of the seasons and a third that affects the interaction between the two driving factors. The first is the tilt of the earth’s spin axis. Currently about 23.5 degrees from the vertical, it fluctuates from 21.5 degrees to 24.5 degrees and back every 41,000 years. The greater the tilt is, the more intense seasons in both hemispheres become: summers get hotter and winter colder.

The second, weaker factor controlling seasonality is the shape of the earth’s orbit. Over a period of 100,000 years, the orbit stretches into a more eccentric ellipse and then grows more nearly circular again. As the orbital eccentricity increases, the difference in the earth’s distance from the sun at the orbit’s nearest and farthest points grows, intensifying the seasons in one hemisphere and moderating them in the other. (At present the earth reaches its farthest point during the Southern Hemisphere winter; as a result, southern winters are a little colder – than their northern counterparts.)

A third astronomical fluctuation governs the interplay between the tilt and eccentricity effects. It is the precession, or wobble, of the earth’s spin axis, which traces out a complete circle on the background of stars about every 23,000 years. The precession determines whether summer in a given hemisphere falls at near or a far point in the orbit– in other words, whether tilt seasonality is enhanced or weakened by distance sesonablity. When these two controllers of seasonality reinforce each other in one hemisphere, they oppose each other in the opposite hemisphere.

Milankovitch calculated that these three factors work together to vary the amount of sunshine reaching the high northern latitudes in summer over a range of some 20 percent – enough, he argued, to allow the great ice sheets that advanced across the northern continents to grow during intervals of cool summers and mild winters. For many years, however, the lack of an independent record of ice-age timing made the hypothesis untestable.

In the early 1950’s Cesare Emiliani produced the first complete record of the waxings and waning of past glaciations. It came from a seemingly odd place, the sea floor. Single-cell marine organisms called foraminifera house themselves in shells made of calcium carbonate. When the foraminifera die, sink to the bottom and contribute to these a-floor sediments, the carbonate of their shells preserves certain characteristics of the seawater they inhabited. In particular, the ratio of a heavy isotope of oxygen (oxygen 18) to ordinary oxygen (oxygen 16) in the carbonate preserves the ratio of the two oxygen atoms in the water molecules.

It is now understood that the ratio of oxygen isotopes in seawater closely tracks the proportion of the world’s water that is locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. A kind of meteorological distillation accounts for the link. Water molecules containing the heavier isotope tend to condense and fall as precipitation a tiny bit more readily than molecules containing the lighter isotope. Hence, as water evaporated from warm oceans moves away from the source, its oxygen 18 preferentially returns to the oceans in precipitation. What ultimately falls as snow on ice sheets and mountain glaciers is relatively depleted of oxygen 18. As the oxygen 18-poorice builds up, the oceans become relatively enriched in the isotope. The larger the ice sheets grow, the higher the proportion of oxygen 18 becomes in seawater – and hence in the sediments.

Analyzing cores drilled from seafloor sediments, Emiliani found that the isotopic ratio rose and fell in rough accord with the cycles Milankovitch had predicted. A chronology for the combined record showed in 1976 that the record contains the very same periodicities as the orbital process.

……

Others have found that during the last ice age the earth’s mountain glaciers also expanded. The evidence – from the heaps of debris plowed up by the glaciers, knows as moraines – is as clear in the tropics and the southern temperate latitudes. On all the mountains studied so far, regardless of geographic setting or precipitation rate, the snow line descended by about one kilometer, corresponding to a drop in temperature of about five degrees Celsius.

Where organic material was trapped in the moraines, radio carbon dating shows that the glaciers advanced and retreated on the same schedule. They fluctuated near their maximum extent between about 19,500 and 14,000 years ago, about the same time as the glaciations of northern ice sheets began to shrink, the mountain glaciers underwent a dramatic retreat that sharply reduced their size by about 12,500 years ago.

How could changes in summer sunshine at the latitude of Iceland have caused glaciers to grow and retreat in New Zealand and the southern Andes? If orbital cycles do indeed drive glacial cycles by acting directly on northern ice sheets, the response to seasonality changes in the high northern latitudes must be strong enough to override the effects of the very different changes in the Southern Hemisphere. One possibility is that the northern ice sheets themselves translate Northern Hemisphere seasonality into climatic change around the world.

胡子长了

文言文 Golden已确认
V1 darkin_elf 700
还有篇是说关于气候什么的：
以前有个研究者发现气候是根据地球orbiting的规律来的，就创立了一个学说，有另外一个研究者通过氧的测量证实了这个观点；第二段是说有第三的研究者跳出来说这个观点是不对的，因为他通过一个实验发觉某地和某地的研究数据表明是有variance的，最后一段那个用氧测量的研究者reconcile了这两个观点，说虽然是有orbiting的规律的，但是还是受到不同地质的影响的。

V2 Golden 540 V14
第一段：1920年，一个科学家M.M.（首字母）提出一个Claim/Theory说貌似地球的Orbit和Ice Age有关系。他的证据是在（可能是南北极的）冰川Layer里面发现的一些植物的标本。
第二段：但是到了1950年，有一个根据CO2的研究指出M.M.的理论有问题，貌似指出问题的关键也是植物的标本问题。后来1970年研究技术更新之后，通过新技术表明，M.M.的理论还是可以被接受的~

V3
先是陈述了 这个理论 然后说当时人们只能在实验条件不足的情况下 大体的承认这个理论。但是1950年出了个A.B 研究了一些东西 carbon rating之类的，说是理论错误了。我觉得这段时间内人们都不再接受M的理论了.随着科技的进步,应该是旧的改良结合很多其它新的technology出现了，证明了AB的 证据索取是比较片面的  M再次被人们接受。
问题：
1.  A.B. 对Milankovitch Cycles Theory的看法导致一段时间内人们都不再接受M的理论了
2. 主题题：选的不同的方法对某一科学推断的研究和看法(没有一个选项提到了Milankovitch Cycles Theory,所以猜测某一科学推断指代Milankovitch Cycles Theory)。
3．Infer: 说如果第一段那些“当时人们”有accurate carbon-dating technologies 的时候，他们会怎样？
4. 新的学者（高亮了）对Milankovitch Cycles Theory的看法

V4
讲冰川. 第一段基本不考; 有一个题目提到highlight的theorist起什么作用, 还有一道题目就是问1970年的研究做什么了, 我觉得貌似应该是revise专家的提议. 还有主旨题目.

胡子长了

2.2.3.        ★研究地质时间**
V1 g20040636 & duke3d001 750
第一段 一个人M研究地球的climate和 和 orbit change之间是有关系的
可以用来推断地质时间   M的观点被很多人accept
第二段 出现了50年代的观点 科学家们开始采用碳标记 是反对M的 因为发现了一种动物 啥狗之类的 化石 它是在M推断的某一个climate不应该出现的。后来80年代新的科技又证明了M的观点是正确的。但是还有一个什么疑问 最后还是说支持 M的观点  
1 新时代的科学家同意的：我选的是A 50年代的科学家如果方法正确应该是要同意M观点的
结构：提出观点（支持），一些人质疑，后来又支持。

V2 zhaoyuangks 710 V34
关于地质的。结构是从1920年M的理论（P1）谈到1950年有科学家反驳再到1970年又反回来（P2）。有问1950年研究反驳的是M的什么理论，还有第二段的作用。不难。

胡子长了

(疑似)原文未删减 gitarrelieber
节选自Plateau Uplift and Climate Change (Scientific American Magazine @ March 1991)
Author：William F. Ruddiman and John E. Kutzbach

During the past 40 million years, and particularly during the past 15 million years, this warm, wet climate largely disappeared. Colder climates and much greater regional extremes of precipitation have developed. What caused this cooling and diversification of climate and vegetation into a complex mosaic of many regionally distinctive types?

One school of thought focuses on the changing positions of the earth’s continents and oceans. The Atlantic Ocean has expanded at the expense of the Pacific Ocean, whereas an ancient equatorial sea that extended across much of Eurasia (called the Tethys Sea) has shrunk to become the modern, much smaller Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the fraction of continents flooded by shallow inland seas has slowly decreased, exposing large amounts of land and creating climates less moderated by the temperature-stabilizing effects of oceans. Computer model simulations show that changes in the arrangement of the continents and the size of inland seas can have important effects on global climate over very long intervals of geologic time. But they are significantly less convincing as sole explanations for the dramatic changes of the past 40 million years.

Another possibility is a long-term decline in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which would lessen the amount of heat trapped by the atmosphere and lead to “greenhouse cooling.” The amount of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere over million-year timescales is controlled by two major processes. Chemical weathering of continental rocks removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and carries it in dissolved chemical from to the ocean, where it is taken in by marine biota and deposited in sediments on the seafloor. Tectonic activity eventually frees this trapped carbon dioxide, in the earth’s lithospheric plates transports the seafloor to ocean trenches, where subduction carries old crust and sediments down toward the earth’s hot interior. At great depths, the sediments melt, releasing carbon dioxide, which emerges from the volcanic islands that overlie the buried curst and rejoins the atmosphere, completing the cycle.

If the pace of seafloor spreading (and hence of subduction) slowed significantly, less carbon dioxide would be vented to the atmosphere, the atmosphere would become relatively depleted of carbon dioxide and temperatures would fall. In fact, globally averaged seafloor spreading rates slow little or no net change in the past 40 million years. Subduction and volcanism eventually return the carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, but this process requires a long time (tens to hundreds of millions of years) to complete.

Plateau uplift may alter climate by increasing chemical weathering of rocks, thereby reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Carbon dioxide combines with rainwater and ground water to form carbonic acid, which reacts with silicate minerals in rocks during weathering. The resulting bicarbonate ions drain into the oceans, where they are taken up by marine animals such as plankton and corals and eventually deposited on the seafloor. The net effect is that chemical weathering removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and locks it away at the bottom of the oceans.

Maureen Raymo proposed that uplift of plateaus and mountain ranges has increased the rate of chemical erosion of continental rock on the globally averaged basis. Uplift could enhance chemical weathering in several ways. Heavy monsoons, which develop at the margins of plateaus, unleash particularly intense rainfall. In these regions, uplift-related faulting and folding also expose fresh rock to the weathering process. Moreover, the steeper slopes created by plateau uplift cause faster runoff, which removes erosion products and intensifies the chemical attack on the rock. Raymo suggests that long-term uplift in Tibet and other regions may have increased the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere. In this way, concentrations would have fallen even though the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled by volcanoes (as inferred from seafloor spreading rates) remained nearly constant. Falling carbon dioxide levels would reduce the ability of the atmosphere to retain heat, thereby amplifying the global cooling.

胡子长了

文言文 nowwsy "CO2和气候变冷"前后类似, 只差确认
V1 (综合版)
两段长篇
科学家发现最近40million years，地球不再是原来那么warm和wet了（此处有题），先给出了一个流派的若干解释：随着二氧化碳的增多，大气的降水中融解了二氧化碳，这些水降到海面，被各种过程吸收，然后沉积到海底，虽然到海底这些c最终还是要回到大气中，但是这个过程需要hundreds of millions of years（隐含40百万年对它来说是相对短的过程，此处有题），另外陆面也对二氧化碳的吸收起到一定作用，而且随着内海的面积逐渐减少，陆面的面积越来越大因而吸收c也越多。第一段的末尾说这个解释不错，但作为唯一的解释未免不让人信服。
第二段是讲好像叫M R的人提出一种观点，对第一段的解释起到支持作用，他说地质演变抬高了陆地某些位置，高了之后会有更多的fresh岩石吸收c，而且因为抬高了后这些位置比较陡，降水可以更好的冲走这些吸收了c的岩石。提出的新观点觉得有二个重要原因
a. weathering的过程　（即对第一段的解释起到支持作用）; b. 岩石陆地的上升strengthen了weathering的过程　
题目总结：
1．一个题目在第一段，问现在环境跟原来环境有什么区别，选择较Warm, Wet（此题也许是取非题，问现在的环境怎么样，那以前的来取非）
2． 第二段，这个过程（二氧化碳溶解沉入海底再回到大气这个过程）需要hundreds of millions of years（隐含40百万年对它来说是相对短的过程，此处有题）
3． 有一个Except题 （注意第二段中的机理讨论部分，见版本6的总结）
4．然后有一个应该是取非条件的（注意第二段中的机理讨论部分，见版本6的总结）
5．R科学家提出，有逻辑题，以下哪项weaken了R的观点，定位于二段后半部分. 注意R的观点有两个部分　a.weathering的过程　（即对第一段的解释起到支持作用）； b.岩石陆地的上升strengthen了weathering的过程．这题要削弱的应该是第二个观点
6．第二段全划线，机理题

胡子长了

2.2.2.        ★地球降温**
V1 Scarlettma
现在的climate越来越冷了，因为2种原因。第一段列出的是因为大陆板块 海洋的变化引起的，第二段就说是因为大气层二氧化碳引起的，就说二氧化碳到了海里面，然后被海洋生物还是什么吸收，然后又被排出，留在seabed上面，再影响气候……好像是这意思，就说这个周期是很长很长的。
1 iamcrystal 710 题目考到什么削弱第二段里的观点，有第二段可以推出什么结论，总之就是大多在第二段里找，注意下hundreds of million years，还有4000million years都是些细节定位的地方，在中间和靠后的都有信息要找。
2 200702061 710：果然看见了传说中的整段HIGHLIGHT啊。那叫一个壮观，屏幕都变黄色了。

胡子长了

(疑似)原文未缩减 gitarrelieber
节选自The Origin of the Land under the Sea (Scientific American Magazine @ February 2009)
Author: Peter B. Kelemen

Knowledge of the intense heat and pressure in the mantle led researchers to hypothesize in the late 1960s that ocean crust originates as tiny amounts of liquid rock known as melt—almost as though the solid rocks were “sweating.” Even a minuscule release of pressure (because of material rising from its original position) causes melt to form in microscopic pores deep within the mantle rock. Explaining how the rock sweat gets to the surface was more difficult. Melt is less dense than the mantle rocks in which it forms, so it will constantly try to migrate upward, toward regions of lower pressure. But what laboratory experiments revealed about the chemical composition of melt did not seem to match up with the composition of rock samples collected from the mid-ocean ridges, where eruptedmelt hardens. Using specialized equipment to heat and squeeze crystals from mantle rocks in the laboratory, investigators learned that the chemical composition of melt in the mantle varies depending on the depth at which it forms; the composition is controlled by an exchange of atoms between the melt and the minerals that makeup the solid rock it passes through. The experiments revealed that as melt rises, it dissolves one kind of mineral, orthopyroxene, and precipitates, or leaves behind, another mineral, olivine. Researchers could thus infer that the higher in the mantle melt formed, the more orthopyroxene it would dissolve, and the more olivine it would leave behind.(melt上升时， 溶解Ort产生Oli, 所以melt higher， 溶解的Ort越多，产生的/留在身后的Oli也越多) Comparing these experimental findings with lava samples from the mid-ocean ridges revealed that almost all of them have the composition of melts that formed at depths greater than 45kilometers. This conclusion spurred a lively debate about how meltis able to rise through tens of kilometers of overlying rock while preserving the composition appropriate for a greater depth. If melt rose slowly in smallpores in the rock, as researchers suspected, it would be logical to assume that all melts would reflect the composition of the fashallowest part of the mantle,at 10 kilometers or less. Yet the composition of most mid-ocean ridge lavas amples suggests their source melt migrated through the uppermost 45 kilometers of the mantle without dissolving any orthopyroxene from the surrounding rock. But how? （疑大概为狗狗第一段的背景内容）

In the early 1970s scientists proposed an answer: the melt must make the last leg of its upward journey along enormous cracks. Open cracks would allow the melt to rise so rapidly that it would not have time to interact with the surrounding rock, nor would melt in the core of the crack ever touch the sides. Although open cracks are not a natural feature of the upper mantle— the pressure is simply too great—some investigators suggested that the buoyant force of migrating melt might sometimes be enough to fracture the solid rock above, like an icebreaker ship forcing its way through polar pack ice. Adolphe Nicolas of the University of Montpellier in France and his colleagues discovered tantalizing evidence for such cracks while examining unusual rock formations called ophiolites. Typically, when oceanic crust gets old and cold, it becomes so dense that it sinks back into the mantle along deep trenches known as subduction zones, such as those that encircle the Pacific Ocean. Ophiolites, on the other hand, are thick sections of old seafloor and adjacent, underlying mantle that are thrust up onto continents when two of the planet’s tectonic plates collide. A famous example, located in the Sultanate of Oman, was exposed during the ongoing collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates. In this and other ophiolites, Nicolas’s team found unusual, light-colored veins called dikes, which they interpreted as cracks in which melt had crystallized before reaching the seafloor. The problem with this interpretation was that the dikes are filled with rock that crystallized from a melt that formed in the uppermost reaches of the mantle, not below 45 kilometers, where most mid-ocean ridge lavas originate. In addition, the icebreaker scenario may not work well for the melting region under mid-ocean ridges: below about 10 kilometers, the hot mantle tends to flow like caramel left too long in the sun, rather than cracking easily.

To explain the ongoing mystery, I began working on an alternative hypothesis for lava transport in the melting region. In my dissertation in the late 1980s, I developed a chemical theory proposing that as rising melt dissolves orthopyroxene crystals, it precipitates a smaller amount of olivine, so that the net result is a greater volume of melt. Our calculations revealed how this dissolution process gradually enlarges the open spaces at the edges of solid crystals, creating larger pores and carving a more favorable pathway through which melt can flow. As the pores grow, they connect to form elongate channels. In turn, similar feedbacks drive the coalescence of several small tributaries to form larger channels. Indeed, our numerical models suggested that more than 90 percent of the melt is concentrated into less than 10 percent of the available area. That means millions of microscopic threads of flowing melt may eventually feed into only a few dozen, high porosity channels 100 meters or more wide. Even in the widest channels, many crystals of the original mantle rock remain intact, congesting the channels and inhibiting movement of the fluid. That is why melt flows slowly, at only a few centimeters a year. Over time, however, so much melt passes through the channels that all the soluble orthopyroxene crystals dissolve away, leaving only crystals of olivine and other minerals that the melt is unable to dissolve. As a result, the composition of the melt within such channels can no longer adjust to decreasing pressure and instead records the depth at which it last “saw” an orthopyroxene crystal. One of the most important implications of this process, called focused porous flow, is that only the melt at the edges of channels dissolves orthopyroxene from the surrounding rock; melt within the inner part of the conduit can rise unadulterated.

胡子长了

2.2.        Geography & Geology

2.2.1.        ★火山熔岩的来由
V1 duke3d001 750, wade777, echosweet 700 & yueqianchen
关键词：45KM, Olivine, Orthopyroxene (referenced by gitarrelieber)。这篇文章的题目不难，狗的骨架也很清晰。
第一段讲火山爆发来源于Mantle中的Lava，而Lava来源于Melt ，Melt在向地表上升的过程中会与Mantle中的Rock反应并不断互相交换物质、变化结构，即吸收Orthopyroxene并排出Olivine。       
第二段说一个跟理论不太相符的事情，一种海底里的lava sample，在距离地表45千米突然发现已经停止这种物质交换，Melt的结构不变了。一种假设是那里的Mantle太松散了，使Melt无法与他们接触并交换物质，但立即被否定了(因为45KM还很深东西都很软，没有裂缝)。另一种假设是Melt在之前的上升过程中已经吸收了足够的Orthopyroxene， 并将能排出的Olivine都排了，无法继续反应。
1 darkchoco 710是什么可以证明这种exchange的存在：熔岩的成分
2 gyz12 740 一道文章最后句定位：Olivine的用完了,exchange就停止了
3 gyz12 740 一道是选chemical composition为特征 sashimiyuki 720 V37 选“lab experiments” indicate 那个melt 的变化的，没有选chemical composition, 细节题定位后决定的，确认后到现在还没有深深后悔过
4 tianmo0512 是什么发生反应：选melt
5 feifeizoe 750 V39 文中什么情况下描述了那种正常的exchange：lab experiment中实现了那种现象
6 The author mention “the melt to rise so rapidly” in order to：提出了一种hypothesis，这种hypothesis在后面被反驳

胡子长了

V2 tcyr900325 750 V41
第一段说tiger moth在发现bat接近时 会模仿bat的叫声 然后rat就不会攻击它们   然后说这是moth为了防止被饥饿的rat捕食 所采取的措施
第二段就说某个人进行了 2个实验  第一个就是将tiger  moth从小就喂养  然后和10只bat 放一起  5天过后 所有moth都可以骗过bat吧 这个人又换了一种moth 和tiger moth特点一样的 发现刚放进去的时候这种moth不能骗过bat 但过段时间大多数都能 第二个实验 是将另外一种和tiger moth 特点不一样的moth 放来和bat 一起  发现 这种moth 是通过模仿 对bat有害的或者bat觉得不美味的动物的声音来避免被捕食的
第三段就是总结上面2个实验的推论
1 有道主旨题 有2个选项很迷惑 一个是描述了2个实验  并比较了实验结果的不同 一个是描述了2个实验 并得出2个实验的结论 我选的第2个
2 还有一个类比题 说第2个实验moth的策略和一下哪个像 我选的是一个蛇模仿一种有毒而且能致死的蛇的声音
3 还有一道题就说第2段2个实验的作用 我选的是支持最后一段的结论 大家遇到还是看下吧

文言文 Golden 因为蓝字，自行确认
第一段：自然界存在一种现象，蝙蝠在幼小的时候会吃一种难吃的蛾子，然后形成习惯，以后就不吃了。 某专家对其进行了研究。然后说了某专家的研究
第二段：介绍某专家的研究。专家从小把蝙蝠抓起来养着，从而杜绝其在野外的捕食行为。蝙蝠在5天内学会了避免难吃得虫子。还做了一些观察和研究。。做了moth和bat之间反应的试验，第一次有了acoustic confirmation作为模拟防御方面的例子；
第三段：介绍了两个实验：1、把蝙蝠放在一个容器里。让他们吃不好吃得蛾子。这种蛾子叫tiger moth，他们的味道比较糟糕unpalatable，结果蝙蝠在尝过它们的糟糕味道后对tiger moth的clicking产生了抵触，觉得不好吃就不吃了。。接着把本身也是unpalatable但本身不会发出声音的moth和蝙蝠关在一起，就一两只蝙蝠吃。2、换一种美味palatable的蛾子，但是这种蛾子能够模拟tiger moth的声音clicking，结果只有两三只bat上去尝试吃了一下发现它可以吃，其他的bat还是不吃。。
第四段：根据此实验推出了两个结论。因为蝙蝠将这种clicking和tiger moth联系起来之后，不再捕食发出这种clicking的蛾子，而这知识在蝙蝠中广泛流传。后来，其它的蛾子也学会了这种clicking，得以从蝙蝠的口中逃生。两个实验结果发现moth主要靠mimic 声音来defend 天敌。
1、主旨题
2、infer 题，选了那个野外那种能吃又能发吃nazhongclick的蛾子可能很少被吃。
3、analog comparison 题，第二个实验类似于什么，选的是一种蛇没有毒会模仿眼睛王蛇的花纹的动作吓跑敌人。
4、题目有一个比较搞，说是该科学家的试验证明了什么。有个说confirmed the reports of acoustic defensive phenomenon 。还有个说give evidence that defensive phenomenon could be acoustic 。纠结很久选了第二个，因为怎么都没看到文章中提到reports啊　

Background文档有背景，非原文

胡子长了

2.1.11.        蝙蝠和蛾**
V1 syamy 730 V40
另有一篇新的说tiger moth(一种蛾）unpalatable (味道不好的) to bats。bats会捕食moth，tiger moth通过clicking来提醒幼虫，通过什么方式（生词太多看不懂，猜测是指放出毒素的意思）来躲避bats。而其他种类moth(应该是对bats没有毒）则会模仿这种click来躲避bats，这种现象被称为defensive mimic
第二段说B这个人用自己养的bats做了个实验，分别针对两种不同的moth，bats的两种反应
第三段说明这两个实验结果说明了什么，我理解都是在support defensive mimic这个现象
题目有主题题；一个细节取非题问的是第二个实验情况。