GMAT考试语法大汇总-prep语法笔记归纳出来的知识点（语法）

myice

一、同位语
同位语由unrestricted adjectival phrase而来，同位语的修饰对象：名词或名词短语或代词
1.同位结构的特征
1)起修饰语的作用,一般用于修饰名词或名词短语；同位语解释的是整个名词，不是名短中某个词，故同位语不是核心词修饰。
2)必须对其修饰对象具有解释力；
3)位置：名词前或名词后，一般在修饰对象的后面；
4)不影响主谓一致（谓语应该和主语保持一致，而不是和同位语）；
5)同位结构中名词的数可以和其修饰对象的数不一致。

myice

2.同位结构的形式
1)名词性同位语：名词解释名词。（以下三种，第二个n.后可以跟修饰词）
a) N., n.;   
b) n., a/an + n.或a/an + n., n.;     
c) the + n., n.（前面的the + n 为同位结构）
2)内容具体化同位结构：抽象名词（theory/evidence/belief/principle）+that 从句，that从句对抽象名词进行具体化解释（注意与of 结构的区别），that从句部分才是同位语。(that是小品词，连词，和一般的名词性that分句中的that一样)
3)概括性同位语：用一个概括性的名词去概括前面的修饰对象：短语/句子，n. + that / doing / done...
4)名词重复性同位结构：n,n（重复所修饰的名词）+that 定语从句
5)代词代替性同位结构：n,one/ones+that 定语从句

myice

3.同位语从句
有很多名词后可以跟that引起的从句，说明其内容，可以称作同位语从句。
He referred to Copernicus’s statement that the earth moves round the sun.
有时同位语从句可以和同位的名词分开。 （其实是同位语从句太长后置）
The rumour spread that a new school would be built here.
在少数情况下也可用连接副词（代词）引起的从句作同位语。
He had no idea why she left.

myice

4. 关于同位语用法中的the和逗号（如B选项中的TM, the jazz pianist and composer）
1)if you preface someone's name with a noun describing their occupation (or other word describing what that person does), WITHOUT AN ARTICLE, OR WITH THE DEFINITE ARTICLE "THE", you DO NOT use a comma. 如果把职位、称号放在人名前面，如果没有冠词，或者有定冠词，就不用逗号（本题的情况）。
example:
Jazz pianist and composer Thelonious Monk ... --> correct
注意：
(1)        if you are using "THE (description) (name)" to introduce someone for the first time, then you DON'T use a comma.但有要注意：当职位、称号前是定冠词时，如果是第一次提到某人，是不必用逗号的
example:
The author Ernest Hemingway was known for his drunken and violent escapades.
--> here we are introducing hemingway, so we don't use a comma.
(2)        if you have already introduced two or more people, but you are using "THE (description) to single out one of them, then you DO use a comma.
example：
Among her friends were an author and a painter; the author, Ernest Hemingway, went on to become an icon of American literature.
--> we've already introduced "the author"; this time we use a comma to single him out.
2)if there's an indefinite article (a/an), you DO use a comma. 如果前面有不定冠词，就要用逗号。
example
A jazz pianist and composer, Thelonious Monk ... --> correct
3)if it's an adjective, you DO use a comma. 如果前面不是职位、称号，而是一个形容词，那就要用逗号。
example:
Creative and original, Thelonious Monk ... --> correct

myice

二、时态问题
1.过去时：originally, from 1978 to 1985,previously
2.完成时态：since; within/during/over/in+the past/last/recent+时间短语(注意in the last year用完成时,last year用过去时)
3.将来时：
条件从句/时间从句/方式从句/让步从句不能用将来时或过去将来时，常用一般现在时代替一般将来时，一般过去时代替过去将来时。（对比状从省略的几种是：转折，时间，条件。）
possibility that…/likelihood that…/expect that…中,that从句后用一般将来时
标准书面语中,优先使用一般将来时,主观将来时用be supposed to do,较少用be going to do,不用be to be doing/be to be done
4.一般现在时：common: the most common reasons, the common procedure
5.过去完成时：必须在语义上有时间的对照(不一定会有一般过去时的出现)，来反映出发生在过去的过去。

myice

三、V-ing(present participle)修饰
V-ing结构在句子中可以做定语，状语。
1.放在句子末尾时，如果前面是主谓宾结构，如果同时时态上与主句搭配合理，V-ing结构作状语，作为：
1)伴随动作，表与主句动词同时发生的动作
2)伴随结果，表主句动作带来的结果。
此时注意其逻辑主语的判断：其所修饰分句的动作发出者。
2.放在句子末尾时，如果前面是主谓宾结构，如果同时时态上与主句搭配不合理(如本题D,E选项)，V-ing结构作定语修饰前面名词。
3.如果前面是主系表结构，由于系动词是一个状态不存在“被伴随”，但是V-ing结构依然修饰的是整个主系表结构，所以后面的V-ing结构也可以被解读为修饰前面的名词成分—主语（如果宾语是名词，也一同修饰，因为主系表结构中主语和宾语所指是同一事物--见OG10-39, OG11-24中对正确选项C的解释）。
For members of the seventeenth-century Ashanti nation in Africa, animal-hide shields with wooden frames were essential items of military equipment, a method to protect warriors against enemy arrows and spears.
A.        a method to protect
B.        as a method protecting
C.        protecting
D.        as a protection of
E.        to protect

myice

OG10-39的解释（注意C选项的解释）：
Choice C is best because the participle protecting begins a phrase that explains what the shields did. Choices A and B awkwardly use the singular word method to refer to items of military equipment rather than to the use of such items. Also, a method of protecting would be more idiomatic than a method to protect in A or a method protecting in B. In B and D, as is incorrect; also, a protection in D has no noun for which it can logically substitute. Choice E is incomplete; used to protect would have been acceptable.
OG11-24的解释（注意C和E选项的解释）
Logical predication + rhetorical construction
The underlined part of the sentence begins a phrase describing items of military equipment. It is awkward and inaccurate to describe items as a method. Replacing the underlined phrase with the participle protecting creates a modifying phrase that clearly explains the purpose of the items of military equipment.
A        A method to protect is an awkward reference to items
B        The singular a method should not refer to the plural items, as a method protecting is not idiomatic
C        Correct. In this sentence, protecting properly introduces a modifying phrase revealing the purpose of the items.
D        Beginning the phrase with as is incorrect; using the noun form protection creates wordiness
E        The infinitive to protect cannot act as an adjective modifying items; the participial form of the verb, protecting, is required
The correct answer is C.

myice

四、Having done
1.不能作为名词结构，因此不能用该结构作主语。
我对定语、状语的理解是这样的：有的时候同一个成分、结构可以做定语，也可以做状语，只要区分被修饰对象与结合时态等分析逻辑上能不能合理修饰就够了，没必要太在意是做定语还是做状语。也就是说，区不区分定语、状语都可以，关键是要明白定语和状语的功能都是“修饰”(有点像废话，不过我的意思是平时我统一把他们记为“修饰语”，只有在做题目解释的时候才区分一下)。
prep1-188中，A选项"having amassed a wealth of knowledge over the past twenty years about the brain and its development from birth to adulthood"，你可以把这个成分理解成状语，也可以理解为定语，修饰的都是Neuroscientists这个主体或这个主体发出的动作，只要你把having看做定语和状语时，句意理解起来是一样的，那么就没有歧义问题。
而prep1-97：Industrialization and modern methods of insect control have improved the standard of living around the globe while at the same time they have introduced some 100,000 dangerous chemical pollutants, having gone virtually unregulated since they were developed more than 50 years ago.这里面having可能修饰pollutants，也可能修饰they have introduced some 100,000 dangerous chemical pollutants整个分句，所以having产生了修饰歧义
2.having done可以做非限定性修饰，不能做限定性修饰。
夸克的语法大全里面明确写出having done做限定性修饰是错误的：
The perfective aspect cannot usually be expressed in the nonfinite clause:
wrong:    The man having won the race is my brother.
correct:   The man who has won the race is my brother.
也就是说.完成时的ing分词形式(having done)作为限制性的修饰是不可以的，但是可以作为非限制性的修饰。
2.having done短语中所表达的内容发生在主句动作之前
3.When having done 结构一定错错，因为不应该有 when。单是 Having done 就够了。Have 有很多地方与正牌动词不同，When 后就不能用 having 了。原因是 having done 是过去，而 when 是当时，所以有冲突。

myice

五、run-on sentence 连写句：
连写句指错误将两个独立分句合写在一个句子里面没有正确地用标点分离。
连写句有两种类型：
溶合句(fused sentence)：根本不使用标点把两个独立分句合写在一个句子里
逗号错误(comma splice):使用逗号但没有并列连词将两个独立分句写在一个句子里。
BTW: 所谓的独立分句即"主句"，其对应的是"从句"，都属于"分句"。
而run-on sentence的重点在于其改正方法：
1）        分为两个句子
2）        用一个逗号加上and, but, or或者其他并列连词
3）        两个句子中间使用分号
This sentence compares the success J experienced after moving to New York to the success she had previously experienced in Germany. The phrase less successful anticipates the conclusion of the comparison with the phrase than… . The main subject of the sentence is photographer LJ , and the main verb is earned . The opening clause She was less successful…. Therefore creates a comma splice if the comma is not followed by a conjunction. The most efficient way to incorporate the information about J’s comparative successes in Germany and in New York is to turn the clause into an adjectival phase describing J. (FROM OG12)

myice

六、Which指代小结
1.尽管A of B的结构，which没有就近修饰。
One pervasive theory explains the introduction of breakfast cereals in the early 1900s as a result of the growing number of automobiles, which led to a decline in horse ownership and a subsequent grain glut; by persuading people to eat what had previously been horse feed, market equilibrium was restored.
2.which不一定跳过插入语指代：
Judge Lois Forer’s study asks why some litigants have a preferred status over others in the use of a public resource, the courts, which in theory are available to all but in fact are unequally distributed between rich and poor.
3.通过单复数判断which的所指：
Changes in sea level result not only from changes in water temperature, which affect water density, but also from the melting of glaciers.
The survival of coral colonies, which are composed of innumerable tiny polyps living in a symbiotic relationship with brilliantly colored algae, is being threatened, experts say, not only by pollutants such as agricultural runoff, oil slicks, and trash, but also by dropped anchors, probing divers, and global warming.
(GWD-10-Q18) In analyzing campaign expenditures, the media have focused on the high costs and low ethics of campaign finance, but they have generally overlooked the cost of actually administering elections, which includes facilities, transport, printing, staffing, and technology.
(GWD-9-Q17) Unlike most other mergers in the utility industry, which have been driven by the need to save money and extend companies’ service areas, the merger of the nation’s leading gas company and leading electric company is intended to create a huge network for marketing the utilities in question as states open their utility markets to competition.
(GWD-13-1) Although she had been known as an effective legislator first in the Texas Senate and later in the United States House of Representatives, Barbara Jordan did not become a nationally recognized figure until 1974, when she participated in the hearings on the impeachment of President Richard Nixon, which were televised nationwide.
4.通过时态区别which的所指：
Like the government that came before it, which set new records for growth, the new government has made laissez-faire capitalism its cornerstone.

Stoneren关于which指代的一个观点：
OG10-114: From the bark of the paper birch tree the Menomini crafted a canoe about twenty feet long and two feet wide, with small ribs and rails of cedar, which could carry four persons or eight hundred pounds of baggage yet was so light that a person could easily portage it around impeding rapids.
当which的潜在指代对象是一个独立的主语结构或独立的宾语结构时，且其指代对象的修饰成分比较简单，那么定语侧重于指代核心名词（在没有语法和逻辑问题的前提下）。