GMAT语法笔记

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目      录
一、句子结构        5
1.        准确使用标点符号        5
2.        副词不能代替连词        5
3.        介词不能代替连词        5
4.        主语从句        5
5.        宾语从句        6
6.        表语从句        6
7.        强调结构        6
8.        倒装结构        6
9.        as结构        7
10.        同位结构        7
11.        独立主格结构        8
12.        省略结构        8
13.        否定结构        9
二、主谓一致        10
1.        代词的指代一致        10
2.        定语从句中的主谓一致        10
3.        倒装结构中的主谓一致        10
4.        主语从句做主语时的主谓一致        10
5.        each相关的主谓一致        10
6.        物质名词的主谓一致        10
7.        数词相关的主谓一致        10
8.        学科名词的主谓一致        10
9.        以-s结尾名称的主谓一致        11
10.        or、but、either、neither等连接主语的主谓一致        11
11.        with、including、as well as、besides等修饰主语的主谓一致        11
12.        主语中有插入成分的主谓一致        11
13.        no修饰主语时的主谓一致        11
14.        part、most、all、some、分数相关的主谓一致        11
15.        a body/collection/array/series相关的主谓一致        11
16.        a/the total/number/average相关的主谓一致        11
17.        neither做主语时的主谓一致        11
18.        不定式和分词做主语时的主谓一致        11
19.        几分之一做主语时的主谓一致        11
三、动词形式        11
1.        过去完成时        11
2.        现在完成时        11
3.        将来时        12
4.        被动语态的构成        12
5.        被动语态的选择        12
6.        不使用被动语态的词语        12
7.        主动形式表示被动含义        12
8.        主动与被动都可以的词语        12
9.        虚拟语气的表达        12
10.        后置主语从句的虚拟语气        13
11.        宾语从句中的虚拟语气        13
12.        虚拟语气的强弱        13
13.        情态动词的功能        13
14.        情态动词可能程度的强弱顺序        14
15.        “能力”和“可能性”的区别        14
16.        情态动词的省略和添加        14
17.        so that从句中的情态动词        14
四、分词和不定式        14
1.        -ing分词的形式        14
2.        –ing分词的功能        14
3.        -ed分词的功能        15
4.        分词逻辑主语的判断        15
5.        分词短语的并列        15
6.        分词的否定形式        15
7.        -ing分词的完成时态        15
8.        定语从句与分词短语的区别        15
9.        加-ing分词作宾语的动词        15
10.        不定式的时态和语态        16
11.        不定式的功能        16
12.        不定式的否定形式        16
13.        不定式作宾语        16
14.        不定式作宾语补语        17
15.        疑问代词加不定式        17
16.        省略to的不定式        17
17.        宾语补语后加不定式        17
18.        用不定式表达动作的目的        17
19.        too to结构        17
五、平行结构        17
1.        平行结构的标志        17
2.        形式绝对对称与功能性相对对称        18
3.        重要的平行结构        18
4.        概念对等原则        18
5.        功能相同原则        18
6.        意思单一原则        18
六、比较结构        19
1.        比较结构概念对等原则        19
2.        比较结构中的用词原则        19
3.        比较结构中的省略原则        19
4.        比较从句中的时态和情态        19
5.        倍数的表达        19
6.        比较结构中的习惯搭配        20
7.        语义上比较或对比的结构        21
七、修饰语、定语从句和状语从句        21
1.        修饰语使用的四个基本原则        21
2.        名词的修饰语        22
3.        限定性和非限定性定语从句        22
4.        准确使用关系代词和关系副词        22
5.        定语从句习惯搭配        22
6.        介词与关系代词连用        23
7.        状语从句的主语        23
8.        时间状语从句        23
9.        方式状语从句        24
10.        目的和结果状语从句        24
11.        条件状语从句        24
12.        转折与让步状语从句        24
13.        原因状语从句        24
14.        状语从句的省略        24
八、词的使用与惯用法        25
1.        用词的五大基本原则        25
2.        介词的使用        25
3.        动词的使用        25
4.        形容词和副词的使用        25
5.        代词的使用        25
6.        名词的使用        26
九、逻辑表达        26
1.        简洁有效原则        26
2.        意思合理原则        26
3.        重心保持原则        26
4.        意思单一原则        27
十、知识点一览        27
1.        along with        27
2.        according to        27
3.        apart from        27
4.        appear as/to        27
5.        argue that/for        28
6.        as a result of        28
7.        as for        28
8.        as to        28
9.        ask sth/sb to do sth        28
10.        attribute sth. to sth. / sth. is attributed to sth.        28
11.        because of        28
12.        claim that/to do        28
13.        conceived of        29
14.        consider n. n./adj.        29
15.        contrary to        29
16.        dated at        29
17.        despite        29
18.        distinguish/the distinction/the rivalry between x and y        29
19.        due to        29
20.        equipped with/to do        30
21.        estimated to be        30
22.        for all        30
23.        if x happened, then y would happen / without x y would never happen        30
24.        if x happens, y will/would happen / y will happen if x happens first        30
25.        in addition to        30
26.        in contrast to/with        30
27.        in terms of        30
28.        instead of        30
29.        less与fewer        31
30.        like        31
31.        on account of        31
32.        on the basis of        31
33.        once x had happened, then y happened / once x have happened, then y happen        31
34.        out of        31
35.        persuade sb. to do sth.        31
36.        seem to do        32
37.        targeted at        32
38.        there be        32
39.        think of n. as n.        32
40.        under way        32
十一、常见错误        32
1.        语义重复        32
2.        所有格错误        33
3.        强调整体改成强调局部        33
4.        修饰语使用不当        33
5.        不简洁        33

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十一、常见错误
1.        语义重复
        although --- however (PREP2-80)
        although --- yet (OG12-100)
        attempt --- try (OG12-24)
        attributed --- the cause of (OG12-79)
        but --- yet
        but --- even though (OG12-98)
        currently --- now (OG12-70)
        due to --- with the result (OG12-33)
        enable --- be able to (OG12-55)
        explained --- because of (OG12-83)
        in the past --- previously (OG12-7)
        other than what it is --- precisely the opposite (OG12-106)
        provision --- provide （OG12-113）
        reduced --- lowered （OG12-134）
        regain --- again (OG12-137)
2.        所有格错误
        动词ing形式放在名词所有格后通常有歧义
organism’s trying => organism’s attempt (OG12-24)
        没有生命的名词所有格形式
the festival’s month => the month of festival（OG12-59/ OG12-74/ OG12-121）
        有生命的名词所有格形式
the career of Muller => Muller’s career（OG12-135）
3.        强调整体改成强调局部
        that 引导的同位语，一般不能用定语替换
hopes that (OG12-2); expectations that (OG12-16) 注意后面时态必须是将来时will/would; confidence that(OG12-50); evidence that (OG12-68); hypothesis that(OG12-115); a phenomenon that(OG12-118); report that(OG12-121)
        because +句子，一般不能用because of 替换(OG12-33/ OG12-76)
        宾语从句，一般不能用宾语短语替换
the theory holds that the universe began 不能替换为the theory holds the universe to have begun (OG12-8)
        主谓结构，一般不能用名词+定语从句替换
educators are at fault for doing不能替换为the fault of educators who have done(OG12-57)
4.        修饰语使用不当
        混淆-ing短语与to do
区别：to do 表目的，ing有解释说明之意 (133)
        混淆-ing短语与that+过去时
"that+过去时"有一种强调该动作已经过去，现在已经结束的意思(completed action)，而"-ing"则表示该动作仍然持续者(ongoing action)（也因此适用于一般规律）。
an ancient civilization that flourished at the same time as..过去，现在不再flourish了（OG12-85）
a concert performance that the composer himself staged in 1911...过去，不能用staging修饰（ALL-288）
a quake of comparable magnitude occurring in the west...一般描述，现在并没有结束（ALL-168）
Visitors have often seen monkeys sleeping on the branches...没有结束，和前面的现在时态一致（ALL-915）
        混淆定语从句与ing分词短语
错误形式有将定语从句改成ing分词短语作为主句谓语的伴随状语。（OG12-66/ OG12-105/ OG12-126）
the killer whale, which can grow ...不能改成the killer whale, growing ...（OG12-66）
        混淆形容词与副词
副词形容词修饰对象的不同：corresponding increased sales （correspondingly increased sales错） （OG12-12）
        时间状语修饰对象有歧义
时间状语放在两个句子（主句与从句）中间（OG12-3）
5.        不简洁
        It may be that… (wordy) 改成 Maybe … (OG12-4)
        with by accounts of (wordy)改成using accounts of (OG12-25)
        whether or not (wordy) 改成 whether(OG12-34)
        it has the ability to../ the ability for it to (wordy) (OG12-34/ OG12-107)
        being的wordy：ed分词短语修饰对象时 (OG12-49/ OG12-103)
        it 引导的that 从句的wordy：
it is the fault of educators who (wordy) 改成 educators are at fault (OG12-57)
it is the expectation that/ it is expected that 改成 heating oil prices are expected to (OG12-93)
        被动语态的wordy：farmer are to be allowed to/ grain able to be grown by/ grain capable of being grown by（wordy）
        定语从句的wordy：改成形容词或同位语从句 (OG12-80/ OG12-88/ OG12-102)
        there be 句型 的wordy （OG12-102/ OG12-113）
        two times (wordy) 改成twice(OG12-125)
        动词优先于名词：it is used in reference to…(wordy)改成 it refers to …（OG12-8/ OG12-11/ OG12-31/ OG12-106/ OG12-132）

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36.        seem to do
seem to do：似乎，好像
Along with the drop in producer prices announced yesterday, the strong retail sales figures released today seem to indicate that the economy, although growing slowly, is not nearing a recession. (OG12-35)
37.        targeted at
be targeted at：以…为目标
Dr. Tonegawa won the Nobel Prize for discovering how the body can constantly change its genes to fashion a seemingly unlimited number of antibodies, each targeted specifically at an invading microbe or foreign substance. (OG12-40)
38.        there be
        GMAT中一般使用“there be + 具体名词”，表示自然存在
Judge Forer recognizes that the American judicial system provides more safeguards for accused persons than does the legal system of any other country, but she believes there is a great disparity between the systems of justice accorded rich and poor.
        there be句型的绝对错误形式：
there could be done sth.
there being sth.
there be sth. done
there be + a/an + 形容词/动词变化而来的名词
39.        think of n. as n.
think of n. as n.：认为…是…
Art museums do not usually think of their collections as capital or consider the interest income that would be generated if a portion of the capital were invested in another form. (ALL-118)
40.        under way
under way：已经开始进行；起航
Although a surge in retail sales has raised hopes that a recovery is finally under way, many economists say that without a large amount of spending the recovery might not last.
To get business under way, we take your price.

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31.        on account of
on account of：由于
On account of inflation, money is lowering its value.
32.        on the basis of
on the basis of：以…为基础
On the basis of growth rates of large modern reptiles such as the Galapagos tortoise and examinations of fossils of juvenile dinosaurs, scientists estimate that the largest dinosaurs probably lived to be between 100 and 200 years old.
33.        once x had happened, then y happened / once x have happened, then y happen
once x had happened, then y happened / once x have happened, then y happen：
Once they had seen the report from the medical examiner, the investigators had no doubt that the body recovered from the river was that of the man who had attempted to escape from the state prison. (OG12-69)
A proposal has been made to trim the horns from rhinoceroses to discourage poachers; the question is whether tourists will continue to visit game parks to see rhinoceroses once the animals’ horns have been trimmed. (OG12-75)
34.        out of
out of：从…中；由于；缺乏
Like John McPhee, Ann Beattie painstakingly assembles in her work an interesting and complete world out of hundreds of tiny details about a seemingly uninteresting subject.
Out of America’s fascination with all things antique has grown a market for bygone styles of furniture and fixtures that is bringing back the chaise lounge, the overstuffed sofa, and the claw-footed bathtub.
Three out of every four automobile owners in the United States also own a bicycle.
35.        persuade sb. to do sth.
persuade sb. to do sth.：劝说、说服…做…（persuade不能加that 从句）
Joan of Arc, a young Frenchwoman who claimed to be divinely inspired, turned the tide of English victories in her country by liberating the city of Orléans and persuaded Charles VII of France to claim his throne. (OG12-127)

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26.        in contrast to/with
in contrast to：与…对比，同unlike，要求比较对象同类
in contrast with：与…对比，不要求比较对象同类
In contrast to large steel plants that take iron ore through all the steps needed to produce several different kinds of steel, small mills, by processing steel scrap into a specialized group of products, have been able to put capital into new technology and remain economically viable.
27.        in terms of
in terms of：就…而言，从…方面来说
In terms of physics, the characteristic feature of the roller coaster is that the potential energy of the cars, gained as a chain drive lifts them through the Earth’s gravity to the top of the first drop, has been converted to kinetic energy by the time the ride ends.
28.        instead of
instead of：用…代替，是…而不是…
Research during the past several decades on the nature of language and the processes that produce and make it understandable has revealed great complexity instead of underlying simplicity.
29.        less与fewer
less修饰不可数名词，fewer修饰可数名词
A study commissioned by the Department of Agriculture showed that if calves exercise and associate with other calves, they require less medication and gain weight more quickly than those raised in confinement.
As a result of the continuing decline in the birth rate, fewer people will enter the labor force in the 1980’s than did in the 1960’s and 1970’s, a twenty year period during which people born after the war swelled the ranks of workers.
30.        like
like可以是动词也可以是介词
        like（介词） + 名词，表示比较，不表示举例
Like a Hollywood movie set with nothing behind the building fronts, the country’s apparent new-found affluence masks a very different reality: most citizens are not living at all well.
        such as + 名词，表示举例
Repelled by bodily punishments such as maiming and branding, Quakers suggested the penitentiary as a reform of the penal system.

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21.        estimated to be
estimated to be：估计为…estimated at 40 m
Paleontologists believe that fragments of a primate jawbone unearthed in Burma and estimated to be 40 to 44 million years old provide evidence of a crucial step along the evolutionary path that led to human beings.
22.        for all
for all：尽管，虽然
For all his professed disdain of such activities, Auden was an inveterate literary gossip.
23.        if x happened, then y would happen / without x y would never happen
if x happened, then y would happen / without x y would never happen：虚拟语气
Affording strategic proximity to the Strait of Gibraltar, Morocco was also of interest to the French throughout the first half of the twentieth century because they assumed that without it their grip on Algeria would never be secure. (OG12-67)
24.        if x happens, y will/would happen / y will happen if x happens first
if x happens, y will/would happen / y will happen if x happens first：表示预测，would没有will的肯定程度深。
A wildlife expert predicts that the reintroduction of the caribou into northern Minnesota will fail if the density of the timber wolf population in that region is greater than one wolf for every 39 square miles. (OG12-122)
25.        in addition to
in addition to：除…之外
In addition to having more protein than wheat does, rice has protein of higher quality than that in wheat, with more of the amino acids essential to the human diet.

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16.        dated at
dated at：鉴定于…年代
Rock samples taken from the remains of an asteroid about twice the size of the 6-mile-wide asteroid that eradicated the dinosaurs have been dated at 3.47 billion years old and thus are evidence of the earliest known asteroid impact on Earth.
17.        despite
despite（介词） + 名词短语，不能加整个句子或doing
Despite its attractiveness, investing abroad can still pose big risks, ranging from the potential for political instability in some countries to the shortage of regulations to protect investors and a serious lack of information about investments in others.
18.        distinguish/the distinction/the rivalry between x and y
        distinguish between x and y
In his research paper, Dr. Frosh, medical director of the Payne Whitney Clinic, distinguishes between mood swings, which may be violent without being grounded in mental disease, and genuine manic-depressive psychosis. (ALL-382)
        the distinction between x and y
Like the Brontes and Brownings, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf are often subjected to the kind of veneration that blurs the distinction between the artist and the human being. (OG12-9)
        the rivalry between x and y
The plot of The Bostonians centers on the rivalry that develops between Olive Chancellor, an active feminist, and Basil Ransom, her charming and cynical cousin, when they find themselves drawn to the same radiant young woman whose talent for public speaking has won her an ardent following. (OG12-44)
        the rivals x and y
19.        due to
due to：由于
Unlike the premiums for auto insurance, the premiums for personal property coverage are not affected by the frequency of claims, but if the insurance company is able to prove excessive loss due to owner negligence, it may decline to renew the policy.
20.        equipped with/to do
        be equipped with：装备有…
All future expressways will be equipped with emergency telephones.
        be equipped to do：准备好做…
Combining enormous physical strength with higher intelligence, the Neanderthals appear to have been equipped to face any obstacle the environment could put in their path, but their relatively sudden disappearance during the Paleolithic era indicates that an inability to adapt to some environmental change led to their extinction. (OG12-73)

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11.        because of
because of：因为，由于
Some historians of science have argued that science moves forward not so much because of the insights of great thinkers as because of more mundane developments, such as improved tools and technologies.
12.        claim that/to do
claim that/to do：声称，断言
A firm that specializes in the analysis of handwriting claims to be able, from a one-page writing sample, to assess more than 300 personality traits, including enthusiasm, imagination, and ambition. (OG12-120)
13.        conceived of
conceived of sth. as sth.：想象，设想
Marconi conceived of the radio as a tool for private conversation that could substitute for the telephone; instead, it has become precisely the opposite, a tool for communicating with a large, public audience.
14.        consider n. n./adj.
consider n. n./adj.：认为…是…
George Sand (Aurore Lucile Dupin) was one of the first European writers to consider the rural poor legitimate subjects for literature and to portray them with sympathy and respect in her novels. (OG12-117)
During the first year after the corporate reorganization, no one considered the management well-organized; managers were largely untrained and directionless. (ALL-265)
15.        contrary to
contrary to + 抽象名词：与…相反，放在句首，做状语，修饰整个句子
in contrast with/to + 名词：与…对比，放在句首，修饰的是主语，要注意比较的一致性
Contrary to financial analysts’ predictions last year that the market for home computers would dwindle, the personal computer industry continued to show strong growth in the first quarter of this year.

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6.        as a result of
as a result of：由于…的结果
The current administration, worried about the removal of some foreign trade barriers and the failure of our exports to increase as a result of deep cuts in the value of the dollar, has formed a group to study ways to sharpen our competitiveness.
7.        as for
as for：至于，关于
As for the stolen jewels, they were found in a dustbin.（至于偷去的宝石, 也在垃圾箱里找到了。）
8.        as to
as to：关于；根据
During the Renaissance, scholars were uncertain as to the location of Troy, and by the eighteenth century many historians doubted that Troy had ever existed.
9.        ask sth/sb to do sth
        ask sth：请求…
Among the objects found in the excavated temple were small terra-cotta effigies left by supplicants who were either asking the goddess Bona Dea’s aid in healing physical and mental ills or thanking her for such help. (OG12-109)
        ask sb to do sth：请求…做…
I'm ready to do everything you ask me to do.
10.        attribute sth. to sth. / sth. is attributed to sth.
attribute x (the effect) to y (the cause) / x is attributed to y：将…归因于…
Defense attorneys have occasionally argued that their clients’ misconduct stemmed from a reaction to something ingested, but if criminal or delinquent behavior is attributed to an allergy to some food, the perpetrators are in effect told that they are not responsible for their actions. (OG12-79)

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十、知识点一览
1.        along with
    along with：和…一起，除…之外
Along with the drop in producer prices announced yesterday, the strong retail sales figures released today seem to indicative that the economy, although growing slowly, is not nearing a recession.
2.        according to
    according to：根据，按照
Eating saltwater fish may significantly reduce the risk of heart attacks and aid sufferers of rheumatoid arthritis and asthma, according to three research studies published in the New England Journal of Medicine.
3.        apart from
        apart from：脱离
There are no duties apart from rights, or rights apart from duties.（没有离开权利的义务，也没有离开义务的权利。）
According to a recent United States study, identical twins reared apart from each other showed striking similarities, including many idiosyncrasies of behavior.
        apart from：除…之外
Apart from their individual challenges, Unix and NT face a common threat from Java.（除了各自面临的挑战外，Unix和NT还共同面临着java的威胁。）
4.        appear as/to
        n. + appear as + n./adj.
She hoped the smile on her face did not appear as stiff as it felt.
        n. + appear to be/do
Combining enormous physical strength with higher intelligence, the Neanderthals appear to have been equipped to face any obstacle the environment could put in their path, but their relatively sudden disappearance during the Paleolithic era indicates that an inability to adapt to some environmental change led to their extinction.
        It appears + that ...
It appears that it is getting warmer and warmer every year.
5.        argue that/for
        argue that：主张，认为…
Defense attorneys have occasionally argued that their clients’ misconduct stemmed from a reaction to something ingested, but if criminal or delinquent behavior is attributed to an allergy to some food, the perpetrators are in effect told that they are not responsible for their actions. (OG12-79)
        argue for：论证，支持…
In 1850, Lucretia Mott published her Discourse on Women, a treatise that argued for equal political and legal rights for women and for changes in the married women’s property laws. (OG12-38)
        argue against：不赞成，反对…