[分享]DN's TOEFL写作

DeBon蝶

目录:
(1-3)楼,写作的用词
(3-5)词汇替换、谚语
(6-7)楼,写作的语言
(8-9)楼,写作的构思
(11-13)楼,我的修改

 综述:

iBT的写作部分分为两个板块,一是independent writing(独立写作),另外一个是integrated writing(综合写作)..Integrated writing虽然名曰<writing>,但是我个人觉得这个板块听力的作用远远大于writing本身-因为它只要求将听力部分的内容清楚的称述出来就可以了,对于语言的本身的要求并不高.但是,independent writing对于语言的要求还是相对较高的,而且independent writing的表现直接决定着大家writing section的最后成绩,所以independent writing是相当的重要的-也就是说,大家还是需要提高一下自己的英语的使用和语言的魅力.

TOEFL写作中的语言

综述:就ETS官方的评分标准而言,对语言的要求是:多样化,准确,结构有一定的复杂程度.就像我提到过的那样,语言本身才是independent writing部分成功的关键.接下来将介绍如何提升自己的语言.

一.用词

一切的语言都是由词汇构成,所以我们首先解决用词的问题.

1).解决用词的低级.

  老外喜欢用这么一句话来形容中国学生:talk like books, write like babies.在说话的时候,中国学生喜欢用一些书面或者根本不常用的词汇;在写作的时候,中国学生往往因为自身实力的限制,写出不少的baby English.

  在TOEFL写作中这样的一个普遍的问题依然存在.我在CD上修改了不少的作文,用词的低级是一个几乎在不少的作文中都有的问题.所谓用词的低级,就是指当一个概念在英语中有多种表达时,使用最为初级最为浅显的一种-往往这种用语都是国外baby们使用的语言,所以戏称为baby English.例如: today is very hot. hot本身也许不是一个低级词汇,但是用hot直接来形容热,就太直接太没有水平了,就如同国外3岁儿童说的话一样.同样的例子还有:This choice is very good/bad之类的用语(这里指的是书面写作时用这样的语言很低级,口语中应该没有什么).

  试想,如果一篇文章中充斥着很多低级的词汇,即便它的结构再好,也很难得高分.

  同时,低级的词汇往往限制着意思的表达.不可否认,native speaker可以用2000-3000个单词表达所有英语中的意象,但是对于我们这种将English作为Foreign Language的考生,用2000多个有限的词汇来表达如此丰富的意思是相当困难的,而且很多时候我们会表达不准确.所以我们就要在最基本的词汇上有更多的词汇积累来准确的表达丰富的意思,低级的词汇的表达往往是有限而且很单薄的.

     
例如:important.

如果你说Money is important.那么表达的意思就是:钱重要.

如果你说Money is crucial. 那么就是:钱极为重要.

如果你说Money is vital. 那么就是:钱至关重要.

如果你说Money is cardinal. 那么就是:钱是一切的基础.

  如果你积累了足够的重要的说法,你就可以用不同说法来表达你的意思,如果你只知道最初级的important,即便你加上个very/quite,也无法表示出刚刚提到的后两个意思.

  再比如:good

在写作中说某个选择好: This choice is good.它表达的意思就是这个选择好.

如果是: This choice is fantastic! 它的表达除了好,还有你个人的喜好的感情色彩.

如果是: This choice is an optimal one. 它的表达就是这个选择已经是最好的了.

如果是: No one can be compared with this optimal choice. 这里用一个改变了概念(将<好>改为<无与伦比>)的词组替换了一个单词,从而表明了这个选择的简直是无与伦比. 

    同样,如果是用good,再怎么也表达不出我刚刚提到的意思.

  所以,用词的高级一是可以帮助大家提升表达和语言的水平,同时可以显示出你的词汇等级不错,在写作中是很有帮助的.

  那么怎么避免用词的低级呢?

词汇积累的方法如下(积累足够的词汇是避免用低级词汇的最好办法):

a.写作积累法.

所谓写作积累法就是自己找个题目作文,然后在写作的过程中会发现自己用比较低级的词汇和一些自己不知道如何表达的概念,这个时候就可以分3步走:第一,把低级词汇和不知道如何表达的词汇的中文意象输入<金山词霸>,得出一串单词;第二,将单词输入高档一些的英英词典(个人认为,对于TOEFL考试而言Collins Cobuild最合适,因为Collins Cobuild的操作很简单,运行速度快,解释准确而且简单易懂,同时还有很多例句可以参考<word bank>.Collins Cobuild的第五版可以在eMule上面下载到;对其余的词典,我的意见是:webster的电子版一是版本比较老<2003年>,二是它的解释有的时候),根据文章的语境和单词的表达情况决定如何使用单词,并在写作中反复练习使用这些单词;第三,将这些单词整理成为笔记和自己的words library,以便于复习和翻看.

b.阅读积累法.

这里的阅读积累法指的是通过intense reading来增加自己的词汇量.我认为,用词的低级很大程度上就是因为没有接触足够的英文阅读材料从而造成的后果.没有阅读,就没有新的词汇来源,也没有新的语言的用法,所以用词就低级了.这里我建议的阅读材料是:NCE和U.S.news等美国各大新闻门户的文章.将上面的文章复制到word文档里边,然后打开金山词霸和Collins Cobuild,将不懂的用法和新颖的词汇用红色标出,每完成一段的阅读,就将红色的地方进行进一步的记忆,并将这些部分记到笔记本上.笔记要经常复习.

c.影像材料记忆法.

相信大家看的英美电影和电视剧都不少了,不过我可以肯定的是大家并没有多么注意里边英语使用的魅力.一部好的英语电影(一般都是比较严肃的英语电影中的语言更好,搞笑的电影的用语用于口语是可以的,但是用于写作就不好了),里边可以学习的地方是相当多的.学习的方法:下载英文字幕或者双语字幕的电影,然后打开金山词霸和word文档,用耳朵认真听,眼睛认真看,看到好的地方就记录下来,然后复习.

改变表达方式提升的方法如下(这是快速将低级的用语的表达变得高级一点的方法):

所谓改变表达方式,就是将使用的低级的形容词或者动词改变为别的词性来表达,从而达到更好的效果.

例如:Money is important.这里可以将important的概念用名词表达就是:Money is of importance.再加上一个great这类的形容词,这样的表达就比一个单纯的important来得好.记住:在可以用名词替代形容词表达修饰时,就最好用名词;动词的表达方式的改变也是这样的,比如:I come here to decide where to go.这里的decide的这个概念,同样可以用带名词的动词短语替换,就是:I come here to make a decision on where to go.这样就高级一些了.记住:可以用含名词的动词短语来表达一个动作时,就不要用一个单独的动词.

2).解决用词的重复

用语的重复和用语的低级其实是密切相关的,所以这个板块的方法和解决用词低级的方法很多是一致的.

用词的重复主要表现为将一个词/词组或者一个概念在作文中反复的使用-这是不符合ETS的用词的多样性的要求的.在我修改过的作文中,95%的习作都是不满足用语的多样性的.就如advantage一词,这个词几乎是90%的文章中都会用到的词汇,而且出现的次数往往大于两次,每次我帮大家修改作文,都要将出现2次或者3次的advantage改为:merit或者pros.又比如说表达原因的because,又不少的同学往往喜欢多次使用because,其实because这个词的本身就可以替换为due to, boils down to或者在结构上改为as或者for引导的从句.

用词的重复也包括表达的重复.也许只是大家没有注意-其实does not或者cannot这样的表达也可以算作重复.这点在后面会有专门的分析.

我一直都认为作文中用词的不重复是很重要的,因为这可以很客观的反映你的词汇水平和使用英语的水平,我相信这也是为什么ETS将用词的丰富作为一条很重要的评分标准的原因.

解决用词重复的方法:

a.最简单最快的方法.

把我的Zd’s词汇替换背了.我会把词汇替换表的容量扩充到200,基本覆盖很多常用的表达.这个词汇替换表是专门针对TOEFL考试的,为大家提供了一个常用单词的另外的一或者两种说法.同时,该表的绝大部分单词都有英文的注释(绝对可靠),使用时结合英文注释(英文注释决定了词汇使用的范围和语境,所以使用之前务必核对英文注释,看看是否符合语境),这样至少就可以使大家的词汇看起来很丰富.

b.结构替换法

这种替换的方法是针对一些常用的表达概念.比如:do not, can not, have to do, must, should这样容易重复的表示不,不能,不得不,必须,应该这类概念的替换.这些常见的在作文中容易出现表达重复的概念,是可以用一些比较高级的结构来进行替换的,但是这些替换也是根据不同的语境来确定的.

比如:Sb must do sth.这里就可以改变结构,说:Sth is a must-do to sb.

  又如:I cannot fall asleep when being besieged by such annoying noise.为了避免使用cannot,这里可以说:It is next to impossible for me who is besieged by such annoying noise to fall asleep.

再如:Just now I did not mention the disadvantages of B. 为了避免did not这里可以说: Just now I failed to mention the disadvantages of B. 其实do not这个概念在很多的情况下都可以改为fail to, 所以大家要留心.

又或者:You should do A. should这个概念就在这里就可以改为: Doing A, in most cases, does more good to you.这类的替换. 用这样的替换一是可以避免should的重复,二是可以防止should带来的那种说教的语气在文中出现.

总的来说,用替换结构这种方法对于语言的要求还是比较高的-因为你为了改变一个常用的表达,句子的其他成分也有可能该改变.不过为了使自己的语言变得更高级,这种方法是我强烈建议使用的.

DeBon蝶

3). TOEFL写作中注意使用的概念

  因为文化差异和理解能力的不同,中英文的使用在很多时候是不可以等同的,所以这里有一些大家需要注意使用的词汇和概念.

 

a.国家和人民不要出现

Well, 我们中国学生最喜欢说XXX对国家和人民是多么的好,所以我们坚决支持XXX.老外真的很讨厌中国学生动不动就把一个东西上升到一个国家,一个民族的高度,因为这样会是文章十分的过于宽泛和不具体,完全不符合TOEFL写作TOPIC中的specific和details两个要求.所以这里建议大家以后不要在文章中提及XXX对国家人民是多么好,TOEFL不要求你的多么为国家人民着想,你要做的就是把文章personal和specific,举的例子也是越personal越concrete越好!

 

b. should/must需要尽量的避免

中国学生还有一个习惯就是滥用should/must,完全可以用abuse来形容.老外也十分讨厌这个,他们形容中国考生的文章就是两个字:说教.TOEFL写作中要尽量避免说教性质的词汇,因为这样会使文章看起来很死,而且给别人的印象不好,动不动就是we should, you should, we must, one must这类词汇的文章给人的感觉就是写文章的人很把自己放得很高很高,然后对所有人说你应该做这个,你应该做那个,阅卷人看了肯定不高兴.而且大量的使用should/must会暴露你的国际-中国,如果让阅卷人把你的文章划分到typical的中国学生式的作文中,你的分就高不起来了.

为了避免should/must这类词的使用,这里有一些替换:

比如elta的TOEFL书很好,你要考托福就必须买一本.90%的中国考生就会说:

Delta is a good book, you must buy one if you want to take the TOEFL test.

替换:将must和名词组合变为形容词

For those who are going to take the TOEFL test, Delta is a must-buy book.

虽然都是must,但是must-buy和must buy的区别在于:

前者推荐的味道大于命令的味道,后者就完全是命令.然后就是前者使用的方式更高级,表达更委婉,后者完全被滥用,没有味道.

Should的替换就有很多了,最好把“你应该”或者“我们应该”这个概念改为:对我们而言,做XXX可能是个更好的选择:It might(用might这个词来表示委婉的语气,大家一定要常用might来使自己的文章不是那么的绝对,因为might本身有的意思就是可能,而且might还有一种商量的语气,让阅卷人读了过后会有一种感觉,就是这篇文章的作者把自己的位置放得不高,语气委婉,是个谦虚而谨慎的人,这样你的印象分就会高一些) be a better choice/alternative for us to do XXX或者XXX might be a better avenue via which we could achieve X.

 

c.减少使用一些我们中国人认为理所当然的东西

我一直都认为中文是世界上最高级的语言(比如:英语为母语国家的人民使用have/has+完成时态表示一个动作的完成,在中文中,一个“了”字就解决了这个难题),但是高级也有高级的麻烦-使用低级语言的国家的人民往往不能理解高级语言中的含义.相对中文,英语就是一种相当低级的语言,所以大家写作文的时候还是照顾一下世界其他民族人民的理解能力和智商(中国,日本,韩国3国人民的平均智商是世界上最高的,高达105,比小布什高了25),语言上不要用中国概念太强的东西,同时我们的一些耳熟能详的故事外国人也很有可能不知道.

比如:当中国学生写诚实的重要性时,往往会想起那个“狼来了”的故事,unfortunately,有的老外还真就那么无知,一个阅卷人看了一个中国学生引用“狼来了”的essay后,在TOEFL essay的评语中说他不清楚作者在写什么.所以,大家在写作文的时候一定要假想改你作文的人很无知,不知道一些中国的tales或者stories,写的时候尽量写用他们的文化背景可以理解的东西.

又比如:当中国学生写为什么读大学时,往往会想到“读大学会使我们将来的道路更宽”,道路更宽这个概念我们一看就知道是指读大学扩大了我们择业的范围,nevertheless,如果你将这个句子就这样用英文表达-attending a university will widen our roads in the future,不少的老外会认为你上大学是去学engineering的,而且是专门修路的那种.不要吃惊,老外的智商就是这样的-中文是最容易使人产生联想的语言,因为中文是表意文字,但是英文是表音文字,所以老外的联想能力有限.Consequently,大家写作文的时候一定要注意-句子和词汇要高级,但是意思一定要明了,至少要保证他们可以看懂,不然阅卷人就会因为不能理解你的话而认为你的作文缺乏逻辑,缺乏逻辑是很严重的错误!

 

d.不要滥用you这个概念.

中国考生其实很喜欢用you这个概念的.假设的时候,总是you怎么怎么样.因为在中文中,用<你>这个概念来假设是很通常的,我们也很容易理解.但是英文中假设的时候往往是用one来表示人,you也有用,但是和中文中的使用还是有区别的.

 

e.在表示否定的时候的用词不要太绝对.

在TOEFL写作中的agree or disagree和preference的题目中,我们很多的时候都会说一方面不好来反衬另外一个的好,这个时候有一部分的同学往往喜欢加上个definitely, absolutely之类的词汇来说某个事物或者选择的不好,其实这样回使语气太过于的绝对,以至于失去真实性.如: The only result of this evaluation was the teachers' efforts are completely
    neglected.这个句子是写来否定学生对老师的评价制度的,这里的completely就太过于绝对-评价制度有可能不好,但是绝对不会completely neglect老师的efforts,不然这个制度就没有存在的意义了.这个句子如果改为:The result of this evaluation, at sometimes, is to some degree partial which means it is not fair enough to be utilized to judge a teacher’s quality in teaching.就会好很多,一是表达了评价制度的不合理的地方,同时没有太武断.

TOEFL写作中表达否定意思的时候,在大多数情况下都不要用太绝对了词汇,因为老外是不喜欢太武断的文章,而且过于的绝对本身就是站不住的.

当然,表达肯定的时候可以用比较绝对的词汇,如:This choice is indubitably the optimal one. 或者As no doubt, A is the best avenue to solve this problem.. 

DeBon蝶

4).提升用词的准确性

 

  在TOEFL写作的评分标准中,对用词的准确性也有很明确的要求-高分作文的用词必须是accurate的.如果我们都是用低级的词汇,可能不会遇到太多用词的准确性的问题;但是当我们将自己的写作中的词汇提升时,用词的不准确这个问题就出现了.

  用词的不准确往往是因为大家直接将英文的对应中文意思输入电子词典或这金山词霸,然后得到一个或者几个新的单词后就直接用于作文中.这样就很容出现用词不准确.因为英语中越是高级的词汇,它本身的含义往往就越复杂,这些特定的含义就规定了这个单词使用的范围,而光是看金山词霸上面的中文解释,我们是不可能了解到某某单词的一些特殊的含义的,所以就出现了用词不准确的问题.

  用词的不准确其实在有的时候会引起表意上的很大的误差.另外,不仅仅是高级词汇才会容易用错,就算是一些常见的词汇,我们也很有可能用不准确.

  比如:play with.从字面上理解,play with就是<和…玩>.所以,有的同学就会写:Yesterday, I played with my friends happily.来表示:我昨天和朋友们玩了一天.不过,实际上,play with的含义并不是像字面上那么简单,play with的真正含义是:有很多身体接触的嬉戏.汗…如果你说I played with my friends yesterday.就是我昨天和我的朋友摸来摸去摸了一天.play with的使用不准确,就会造成很尴尬的后果.

  高级的词汇更容易用得不准确,比如我经常举的例子:
  prevent sb from doing sth和deter sb from doing sth,在中文的字面上都是阻止某人干某事,实际上,前者是make it impossible,所以不能干了,后者是make him/her do not want to do it, 意思大相径庭,所以在很多情况下,这两个词组是不可以互换的.如果替换不当,那么表达的意思就是不一样的.

  有比如rapid和meteoric,在中文上,它们两个都是<快>,那么是否可以用meteoric来形容某事物的发展很快呢?是不可以的.因为meteoric是特指某人在完成某事上的速度惊人,或者在自己的领域很快的取得了成功.如果没有搞清楚rapid和meteoric的区别,就很有可能在写作中出现不准确的替换从而导致表意的清晰.

解决的方法:

 

a.还是多读.读得越多,见到的用法就越多,这样用起单词来就更放心.具体方法前面的词汇积累中已经有提到.

 

 

b.多查字典.一有不清楚的就查字典,用新单词前也要查字典.具体的方法前面已经提到过.

 

 

c.多写多改.通过写的方式来练习自己对单词使用的熟练度,这样就不容易出错了.修改的话建议大家相互修改,这样往往可以改出一些自己改不出的错误.

DeBon蝶

5).提升用词的时效性

  这个是大家往往比较容易忽视的一个部分.其实,如果你的用词的时效性很强,给阅卷人的印象就是:你不是一个死读书的人,你对于他们当前的一些东西是有了解的,所以,你是一个全面的,有见识的人.这样的好印象,是会对高分有帮助的.

  这里就不得不提到我几乎在所有的修改中都改动的一个地方:将nowadays改为currently.

  有人也许会疑惑:nowadays和currently的意思完全一样,而且我们在中国见到的绝大多数表达<当今>这个概念的词汇都是nowadays,为什么要用一个currently呢?

  Well,这就是用词的时效性.实际上,现在英美的各大主流媒体表示<当今>这个概念时,绝大多数时候都是使用的currently.不可否认,nowadays在有些作家的文章中也有使用(如NCE),但是相对currently, nowadays已经out-dated. 如果你的文章中使用的currently,至少告诉了阅卷的人你是对当今美国主流媒体的用词还是有点了解的.而且,如果用nowadays(绝大多数的中国考生都是:nowadays, …),阅卷人有很大的可能会把你的文章归入中国考生的模版作文中(据新东方的老师透露,ETS的阅卷人一看到nowadays的开头就会本能的反映-这是中国考生).一旦被不幸的划分到模版作文中,你的分数就不会太高了.虽然用currently的好处不一定很大,但是用currently和at present是绝对没有风险的,不过要是用nowadays,就真的不好说了.

  这里提一提IELTS. IELTS的口语板块中,如果你开头说的是currently,面试官会很高兴,他会觉得你的表达是符合潮流的,不是中国考生令人呕吐的nowadays,即便你后面发挥得不怎么样,他也会认为你是紧张,会通融一下的;However, 如果你很不知趣的用一个nowadays开头,他很有可能对认为你就是一个典型的中国考生-没有up to date,用的英语都是老掉牙的,这样,即便你后面的表现还是过得去,他也有可能认为你是在面试之前准备了模版,说不定也不会给你打高分.

  以上的观点是我的一个在英国的同学给我说的.她高一时IELTS 6.0分,上过新东方的VIP课程.是VIP的老师给她这样说的.

  举这样的一个例子就是告诉大家:即便你没有高级的词汇,你的一些很up to date的用词也是你作文的highlight,也会给考官很好的印象-TOEFL写作很大程度上就是一个印象分.

 

 

  提升词汇的时效性的唯一方法:增大输入量.只有海量的输入当代英语材料,才可以达到用词的高时效性.

 

 

6).用一些地道的用词和避免用词的不地道

  说实在话,要让自己的用词变得很地道,这个东西在短时间内是不可能完成的.但是,我们至少哦可以避免自己的用词不地道.

  其实用词的地道和以上提到的其他五个方面是密切相关的.TOEFL写作的评分标准中,也有对用词要地道这个要求.作为将英语作为一门外语的我们,要想在没有在国外居住学习过一段时间的情况下就写出满篇地道的英语那是不可能的.不够,我们可以写少许的地道的英语作为highlight,同时,我们也可以通过少写或者不写一些自己不肯定的表达来减少表达的不地道.

  先说用点地道的表达.这个肯定也是需要积累的,不过积累有是有方向的:积累那些我们在写作中常用的概念的地道的用词来表达这些概念.如:杯水车薪.其实这个是个常用的概念,但是要是让我们翻译,可能是要抓狂的,这个时候我们中的很多人会求助于金山词霸.金山词霸的翻译是an utterly inadequate method in dealing with a severe situation. 显然,这个是很不地道的.其实,杯水车薪可以表示为: It only amounts to more than a finger in the dike.

  我希望以后可以编一个常用表达的表,来帮助大家多积累点这样可以作为highlight的地道用语.(可以肯定,100个中国考生来写<杯水车薪>,可能有60个表达不清楚,30个表达得勉强,5个表达得明晰但是不地道,4个将<杯水车薪>的故事讲一讲,剩下一个,可能会用a finger in the dike.如果你就是那一个,那么阅卷人对你的印象就会很好,)

  用词的地道不是人人都可以达到的,但是用词的不地道却是在很大的程度上可以避免的.

  首先,请参考前面的<TOEFL写作中注意使用的用词和概念>.我之所以将这些提到的单词或者概念加上<慎用>的标签,就是因为他们可能会使你的文章看起来不地道,所以希望大家好好看看这个<TOEFL写作中注意使用的用词和概念>.

  然后,就是避免使用一些中文直译的概念,这个也是不需要多阐述的,大家都知道chinglish不是那么好理解的.而且chinglish的很没有语言的魅力的.

  还有就是不要用old-fashioned的词汇.比如:tiptop这个词是顶尖的意思,但是它是old-fashioned.有一次我对老外说这个单词,他竟然反应了一会儿才理解我说的意思.我举这个例子的为的是说明ld-fashioned的词汇已经不经常被使用,老外反应是有点困难的.如果你使用,那么阅卷人也会反应一会儿才能够理解你的意思.就如同我们给外国人改作文看到里边有几个明清时代的用词,比如:你这斯好生聒噪! 汗…你最好不要让阅卷人感觉:Oh, my grand grandfather shows up!(说how do you do是绝对可以产生这种效果的).然后阅卷人就会产生这个感觉:这家伙太过时了,一点都不地道.

附录1:中英翻译的词汇空缺现象

什么是词汇空缺现象 一种语言能用单个词语明确标记的东西，另一种语言却可能要兜圈子才能表达。比如在日常生活中， 如果我们不知道七十年代初美国总统Nixon制造的 “水门事件”的史实，我们便无从了解Watergate, 现用来泛指类似”水门事件”的丑闻。看来Watergate 由特指“水门事件”到泛指丑闻这一现象为英语 所特有，在汉语中则存在着空缺。

    如果译者不了解词汇空缺现象，势必会给跨文化交际带来回难，给回译造成障碍。为此，研究有 关词汇空缺现象产生的原因是很必要的。

    词汇空缺现象产生的原因

    1. 生活环境、生活经验的差异引起了词汇空缺。

    我们知道，语言常常是客观世界的反映，是一种社 会现象。人们生活在什么样的环境里，就“会产生 什么样的语言。如果某一事物在人们所生活的客观 环境里不存在，那么语言就可能出现空峡。

    比如：Salad这种凉拌菜源于法国，英国人最先没有 这道菜，语言中也不存在这个同，因此只好从法语 中原封不动地“移植”过来，汉语也是如此。

    在我国，吃饭问题长期以来都是人们特别关心的问 题，因而成了人们经常谈论的话题。人们见面时总 爱说：“吃过了吗？”在一般情况下，说话人并不 十分关心听话人是不是吃了饭，只是打个招呼罢了。 但如果向英国人问起“吃过了吗？”他首先的反应 是“怎么，没吃过你会请我吃？”有时还可能对问 话人产生反感，“怎么搞的，一见面就问我吃没吃， 设吃又关你什么事？”由于这种文化上的差异，汉 语中出现了许多围绕”吃饭”问题所建立的词语和 表达法，但在英语中很难找到对应的表达法。

    比如我们说“吃闲饭”（lead an idle lefe）， “吃香”（be very popular）， “吃不消”（more than one can stand, too much） 等等，译成英语就无法字字对应了。

    所谓生活环境和生活经验问题，还涉及到特定语 言文化中的人或物。每一种语言中，都有不少只 同使用该语言的人物密切相关的表达法。

    比如，汉语中有“盘古开天地”之说，其中“盘 古”为中国传说中人物，该名字所具有的含义是 一种独一无二的幻象。只存在于中国的语言文化 中。同样，作为西方文化源泉的《圣经》也为西 方所独有，而且《圣经》中的人物Cain(该隐)现 已引申为“骨肉相残”，为世人所接受，所有这 些都已成为欧美人的文化邀产。对中国人来说， 这些都是欧美文化的个性，与中国文化互不相融。 在翻译此类作品时，译者往往要借助文中补充说 明或加注解的方法，才能把原意解释清楚。

    比如，如果把“东施效颦”简单地译成"Dongshi imitates Xishi,"原文的含义就没译出来。东施是 谁，西施又是什么样子，只有中国读者理解。如 果译文读者也明白“东施效颦”指的是“The ugly imitates the beautiful in such a distorted way that the ugliness of the ugly becomes worse”， 那么就得对译文进行解释性加工。

    2．由于风俗习惯的不同，各语言之间常出现相对 的词汇空缺现象。

    中国人把娶媳妇、贺生日称为“红喜”，把老 人过世称为“白喜”。对于没有接触过我国文化的 欧美人来说，把要熄妇说成”红喜”并不费解，英 语就把喜庆问称为“red-letter day”。但把上年纪人 的去世也当成一大“喜事”，这就令他们奇怪了。 因此，与欧美文化相比，把死人称作“白喜”是我 国文化的个性。

    3．由于宗教信仰不同而引起的词汇空缺现象。

欧美人多信奉基督教，认为世界是上帝创造 的，世上一切安排也都是上帝的旨意，且基督教 在欧美历史上曾一度占统治地位，教会的势力往 往凌驾于国王，君主之上。而在中国，人们心目中 只有“开天辟地”的盘古和”主宰自然界”的“老天 爷”。上帝和老天爷所代表的东西截然不同，含义 也不大一样。尤其是“上帝”这个概念，具有较浓 的基督彼色彩，是欧美文化的个性。再如，汉语和 英语中都有“龙”的字眼，但“龙”在英语文化中是 没有“地位”的爬行动物，是令人们恶的象征，在 汉语中则恰恰相反。在我国古代，“龙”就是皇帝 的象征，后来又引申为珍异、高贵的象征，语言中 也就相应出现了“龙颜”，“望子成龙”，“乘龙快 婿”，“龙凤皇祥”等褒义表达法。从这种意义上 说，“龙”是我国文化的“特产”，是一种文化个性。

    4．人们对客观世界认识的不同也会使语言产生词汇空缺现象

    同一客观事物，在不同文化里可以包含不同 的价值，引起不同的联想，具有不同内涵。如汉语 和英语中“狗”的含义就大不一样。在西方，狗是 忠诚的伴侣动物；但在我国，人们通常对狗有种 厌恶的心理。中西方人对狗所持的不同态度，自 然而然也在各自的语言中反映出来。

    （一）汉语表示法 狗腿子（lackey）， 狗崽子（son of 娃哈哈）， 狗急跳墙（a cornered beast will do sth. desperate）， 狗嘴吐不出象牙（a filthy mouth can''t utter decent language）。

 

    （二）英语表示法 love me，love my dog.（爱屋及乌）． top dog(最重要的人物)， lucky dog (幸运儿)， dog-tired(筋疲力竭)， to lead a dog''s life（过着牛马不如的生活）。

    从以上汉英表示法来看，我们发现二者在语 义上很不相同。在英语中，虽然“dog”间或含贬 义，如”this/that dirty dog”（这／那个狗东西）， “They say English is going to dogs”（人们说英语糟糕得快完蛋了）。但一般说来，这个词或含有 这个词的各种说法大都含褒义。或是含中性意 义。从这一角度上说“狗”和“dog”除了本义相偶 合以外，其余引申义、喻义基本是属于语义彼此 空缺的范畴。

    以上仅是产生词汇空缺现象的主要原因。必须指 出的是：语言之间存在词汇、语义上的空缺，完全属于一种自然现象，我们应当客观他对待。

DeBon蝶

附录2: Zd's词汇替换表

1.important=crucial(extremely important), significant(amount or effect large enough to be important)

2.common=universal, ubiquitous(if something is ubiquitous, it seems to be everywhere)

3.abundant=ample(enough and usually extra), plentiful(enough for people's needs and wants)

4.stick=adhere, cling(hold on something tightly)

5.neglect=ignore.(difference: neglect means someone has not paid enough attention to something; ignore means no attention.)

6.near=adjacent(two things next to each other), adjoin(the same as adjacent)

7.pursue=woo(man woos woman, old-fashioned), seek(if you seek sth, you try to obtain it.FORMAL)

8.accurate=precise(precise is exact and accurate in all details), exact(correct in every detail)

9.vague=obscure(unknown or known by only a few people)

10.top=peak, summit

11.competitor=rival, opponent(especially in sports and politics)

12.blame=condemn(if you condemn something, you say it is very bad and unacceptable)

13.opinon=perspective, standpoint(means looking at an event or situation in a particular way)

14.fame=prestige(describe those who are admired), reputation

15.build=erect(you can erect something as buildings,FORMAL), establish

16.insult=humiliate(do something or say something which makes people feel ashamed or stupid)

17.complain=grumble(complain something in a bad-tempered way)

18.primary=radical(very important and great in degree), fundamental

19.relieve=alleviate(alleviate means you make pain or sufferings less intense or severe)

20.force=coerce sb into(coerce means you make someone do something s/he does not want to), compel

21.enlarge=magnify(magnify means make something larger than it really is)

22.complex=intricate(if something is intricate, it often has many small parts and details)

23.lonely=solitary(if someone is solitary, there is no one near him/her)

24.small=minuscule(very small), minute

25.praise=extol(stronger than praise), compliment(polite and political)

26.hard-working=assiduous(someone who is assiduous works hard or does things very  thoroughly)

27.difficult=arduous(if something is arduous, it is difficult and tiring, and involves a lot of efforts)

28.poor(soil)=barren, infertile(used to describe the soil is so poor that plants cannot be planted on it)

29.fragile=brittle, vulnerable(someone who is vulnerable is easily hurt emotionally or physically)

30.show=demonstrate(to demonstrate a fact means tp make it clear to people.)

31.big=massive(large in size, quantity, or extent), colossol(use this word, you emphasize something is large), tremendous(INFORMAL)

32.avoid=shun(if someone shuns something, s/he deliberately avoid that something or keep away from it.)

33.fair=impartial(someone who is impartial is able to give a fair opinion or decision on something.)

34.attack=assault(physically attack someone), assail(attack violently)

35.dislike=abhor(abhor means you hate something to a extreme extent for moral reasons), loathe(dislike very much)

36.ruin=devastate(it means damage something very badly, or utterly destroy it.)

37.disaster=catastrophe(a catastrophe is an unexpected event that cause great suffering and damages)

38.finally=eventually(espcially after a lot of delays), ultimately(after complicated series of events)

39.always=invariably(the same as always, but better than always)

40.forever=perpetual(a perpetual state never changes), immutable(something immutable will never change or be changed)

41.surprise=startle(it means surprise you slightly), astound(surprise you to a large degree), astonish(the same as astound)

42.enthusiasm=zeal(a great enthusiasm), fervency(sinere and enthusiasm)

43.quiet=tranquil(calm and peaceful), serene(calm and quiet)

44.expensive=exorbitant(it means too expensive that it should be)

45.luxurious=lavish(impressive and very expensive), sumptuous(grand and very expensive)

46.boring=tedious(if you describe something tedious, you mean it is boring and frustrating)

47.respect=esteem(if you esteem someone, you respect and admire him/her. FORMAL)

48.worry=fret(if you fret about something, you worry about it)

49.cold=chilly(unpleasantly cold), icy(extremely cold)

50.hot=boiling(very hot)

51.dangerous=perilous(very dangerous, hazardous(dangerous, especially to people's safety and health)

52.nowadays=currently

53.only=unique(the only one of its kind), distinctive

54.stop=cease(if something ceases, it stops happening or existing)

55.part=component(the components of something are the parts that it is made of)

56.result=consequence(the results or effects of something)

57.obvious=apparent, manifest

58.based on=derived from

59.remarkable=conspicuous(if something is conspicuous, people can see or notice them very easily)

60.quite=fairly

61.pathetic=lamentable(very uncomfortable and disappointing)

62.field=domain(a particular field of thought, activities or interest)

63.appear=emerge(come into existence)

64.whole=entire(the whole of something)

65.wet=moist(slightly wet), damp(slightly wet), humid(very damp and hot)

66.wrong=erroneous(incorrect or partly correct)

67.difficult=formidable

68.change=convert(change into another form)

69.typical=quintessential(this word means represent a typical example of something)

70.careful=cautious(very careful in order to avoid danger), prudent(careful and sensible)

71.ability=capacity, capability(the same as ability)

72.strange=eccentric(if some one is eccentric, s/he behaves in a strange way, or his/her opinion is different from most people)

73.rich=affluent(if you are affluent, you have a lot of money)

74.use=utilize(the same as use)

75.dubious=skeptical(if you are skeptical about something, you have doubts on it.)

76.satisfy=gratify(if you are gratified by something, it gives you pleasure and satisfaction)

77.short=fleeting, ephemeral(if something is ephemeral, it lasts a short time)

78.scholarship=fellowship

79.angry=enraged(extremely angry)

80.smelly=malodorous(used to describle an unpleasant smell)

81.ugly=hideous(if something is hideous, it is very ugly or unattracitve)

82.attractive=appealing(pleasing and attractive), absorbing(something absorbing can attract you a great deal)

83.diverse=miscellaneous(a miscellaneous groups consists of many different kinds of things)

84.disorder=disarray, chaos

85.crazily=frantically(used to describe someone who behaves in a wild and uncontrolled way)

86.rapid=meteoric(ATTENTION:meteoric is only used to describe someone achieves success quickly)

87.ordinary=mundane(very ordinary and not at interesting or unusual)

88.despite=notwithstanding(FORMAL)

89.best=optimal(used to describe the best level something can achieve)

90.sharp=acute(severe and intense)

91.unbelievable=inconceivable(if you deem something inconceivable, you think it very unlike to happen)

92.puzzle=perplex(something perplex someone means it confuses and worries him/her because he/she does not understand it)

93.method=avenue(a way of getting something done)

94.famous=distinguished(used to describe people who are successful in their career)

95.ancient=archaic(extremely old and extremely old-fashioned)

96.decorate=embellish(embellish means make something look more attractive via decorating it with something else)

97.possible=feasible(if something is feasible, it can be done, made or achieved)

98.so=consequently, accordingly

99.rare=infrequent(does not happen often)

100.greedy=rapacious(greedy and selfish)

短语

DeBon蝶

101.in my opinion=from my perspective

102.very much=a great deal

103.for example=to give a demonstration

104.however=as a matter of fact, it is the other way around

105.agree with=uphold(support and maintain)

106.be full of=be saturated with(be filled with sth completely)

107.by=via

108.according to=in the light of

109.when it comes to=in terms of

110.from a XXX perspective=in XXX sense

111.find a job=land a job

112.latest=up to date

113.achieve a goal=attain an accomplishment

114.at the same time=simultaneously

115.at the start of=on the threshold of

116.certainly=to a certain extent

117.with doubt=indubitably

118.in XXX means=via XXX avenue

119.disagree with=be the last one to uphold

120.as fast as=apace with

单词

121.awful=nauseous(if something makes you nauseous, you want to vomit)

122.lack=scarcity(if there is a scarcity of something, there is not enough of it for people)

123.suddenly=abruptly(very sudden and often unpleasant)

124.agree=espouse(the same as agree with)

125.immortal=eternal(something that is eternal can last forever)

126.gigantic=enormous(very large in size or amount)

127.horrible=macabre(strange and horrible or upsetting)

128.generous=munificient(very genrous, FORMAL)

129.advantage=merit(if something has merit, it has good or worthwhile qualities)

130.happy=jovial(if someone is jovial, s/he is happy and behaves in a cheerful way)

131.sad=inconsolable(extremely sad and cannot be comforted)

132.brave=gallant(if someone is gallant, s/he behaves bravely)

133.disappear=vanish(ATTENTION:vanish means disappear suddenly or in a way cannot be explained)

134.difference=divergence(a divergence is a difference between two or more things, opinions or attitudes)

135.repeat=iterate

136.effective=efficacious(the same as effective, FORMAL)

137.dishonest=mendacious(a mendacious person is someone who lies)

138.talkative=loquacious(if someone is loquacious, s/he talk a great deal)

139.think over=contemplate(think carefully), ruminate on(think carefully)

140.tendency=vogue(in vogue means very popular)

141.protect from=shield from(the same as protect from)

142.lazy=slothful(lazy and unwilling to make an effort to work), indolent(lazy, FORMAL)

143.limited=finite(something that is finite has a definite fixed size or amount)

144.disadvantage=defect(a fault or imperfection in a person or thing)

145.useless/in vain=futile(ATTENTION: if you say something is futile, you mean there is no point of doing, usually it has no chance of succeeding)

146.undeniable=there is no gainsaying(FORMAL)

147.potential=latent(used to describe something hidden or not obvious at the moment, but which can develop further in the future)

148.harmful=baneful

149.daring=audacious(someone who is audacious takes risk to achieve something)

150.talent=aptitude(someone's aptitude for a particular kind of work or activity is his/her ability to learn it quickly and to do it well)

151.waste=dissipate(dissipate means waste money, time or effort in a foolish way)

152.obstacle=stumbling block

153.many=a multitude of, a myriads of

154.good=superb(if something is superb, its quality is very good indeed)

155.random=haphazard

156.behave=conduct(if you conduct yourseld in a particular way, you behave in that way)

157.kind of=sort of

158.loyalty=fidelity(fidelity is loyalty to a person, or organization, or set of beliefs)

159.embarrassing=awkward(an awkward situation is embarrassing and difficult to deal with)

160.building=edifice(ATTENTION: an edifice is a large and impressive building)

161.unendurable=unsufferable(if you say something is unsufferable, you are emphasizing that it is very unpleasant and annoying)

162.undoubtedly=as no doubt

163.although=albeit(the same as although)

164.unwilling=grudging(a grudging feeling or action is felt or done very unwillingly)

165.hardly=scarcely(you use scarcely to say that something is not true or is not the case, in a humorous or critical way)

166.courage=nerve(nerve is the courage you need in order to do something difficult or dangerous)

167.generally=as a rule

168.understand=discern(if you can discern something, you are aware of it and know what it is)

169.obviously=transparently(easily understand or recognize)

170.define as=address as

DeBon蝶

附录3:常见的谚语翻译(来自www.ttadd.com)

一桶水摇不响，半桶水响叮当
  
有人照字面译成：The full pot of water makes no sound; the half-empty pot of water is noisy. 老外听后，也许会感到困惑。他们有自己的说法：A little knowledge (or learning) can be (or is) dangerous.（一知半解很危险）
  或者说：Still water runs deep.（静水深不可测）
  也可以说：He who knows the most says the least.（懂得越多的人，反而说得越少。）
   

水落石出
  
有人照字直译为：As the water level sinks, the stones are exposed. 这样说，恐怕老外还是听不懂。他们的说法是：All secrets may eventually come to light. (所有秘密最后总会曝光。) 也可以说：Eventually, every secret will be disclosed.

这山望到那山高
  
有人译成：The apples on the other side of the wall are the sweetest.（意思是：墙那边的苹果最甜）
  当然，如要译成：If you stand on a mountain, you feel the distant mountain seems higher than yours. 老外也勉强能接受。
  而他们的最习惯说法是：The grass always looks greener on the other side.（另一边的草，看来总是绿些。）
   

烈火炼真金，患难见真情
  
有人译成：Fire is the test of gold；adversity is the test of friendship. 这句译文，虽然很好，老外也能了解，但是他们还有另外的说法：Liquor brings out a person’s true color.（烈酒能显示一个人真正的特色）
  或者说：Wine reveals a person’s true heart. 虽然老外不用"烈火炼真金"的比喻，但有"路遥知马力"的说法：By a long road, we know a horse"s strength；at times of difficulty, we discover a friend’s true character.

雷声大，雨点小
  
有人译为：The thunder roars loudly, but little rain falls. 或者说： All we hear is thunder, but no rain falls. 虽然这样直译比较容易理解，但是老外的说法是这样的：Actions speak louder than words. (行动胜于言谈) 或 All we hear is words, but there is no action. （只动嘴不动手）
  或 Actions and words should go hand in hand. (言行必须一致) 另外，还有英语里还有这样的说法： An empty barrel makes biggest sound.（空洞的话说得太多了。）
  

人不可貌相，海水不可斗量
   
有人译为：A man can not be known by his look, nor can the ocean be measured by a dipper. 这样的译法只是直译，如果能够稍加修改，老外就能了解：A man can not be judged by his appearance, nor can the water in the sea be measured by a bucket. 不过，老外通常的说法是这样的：We can not judge a person by appearance only. 或 You can not judge a book by its cover. (意思是：一本书的好坏取决于它的内容，而不是它的封面装帧的漂亮与否。)

口蜜腹剑，笑里藏刀
    
有人译为 His mouth is honey; his heart is a sword. 外国人听了会对这样的比喻摸不着头脑，如果要形容某人"口蜜腹剑，笑里藏刀"，我们可以说 with honey on one"s lip and murder in one’s heart, 或者 honey-mouthed but dagger-hearted. 也可以更直接的译成He is an evil man who has a mouth that praises and a hand that kills.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲
    
有人译成 If you neglect study when you are young, what may happen to your old age? 这句问句会把老外问得云里雾里，因为他们沒有"学而优则仕"的思想，也不认为功课差，将来就会伤悲。他们劝告子女经常说的是 Studying / working hard can lead you to a brighter / more promising future. (努力用功会带给你光明的前程。
   当然也可以对年轻人说：Study hard when you are young. It will pay off when you get older. (年轻时好好努力，到老的时就会觉得学有所值。)

学如行舟，不进则退
    
如果直译成：Learning is like rowing upstream; not to advance is to drop back. 老外听后，也许会感到一头雾水。这样修改一下，表达可以清晰一些：  Learning seems like rowing upstream（逆流）; if one does not advance, one will fall back.  Learning is like rowing against the current（激流）, if one does not advance, one will retreat. 更直接的说法是：  If you don’t make progress, you will fall behind.

一日为师，终身为父
    
有这样的译法：  He who teaches me for one day is my father for life.   If you are my teacher for even one day, you will be my teacher (mentor) all my life.  He who teaches me may be considered my father-figure for life.   这几种译法意思都是"老师即使对我只有一天的教诲，也会让我一生都受用不尽"。外国人也有他们表达师生关系的谚语，如：  Teach others to fish and they will fish for a lifetime.（授人以鱼，不如授人以渔）  Give a man fish, he will have a meal; teach him to fish, he will have food all his life.

忠言逆耳，良药苦口
    
有人译成 Faithful words are contrary to the ears; good medicine tastes bitter to the mouth. 也有人反译为：Bitter words are medicine; sweet words bring illness.  Good advice often jars on the ears; bitter pills have good effects. 这些说法，老外也会 "一知半解", 不如直接一点说成：Honest advice may be distasteful to the recipient.
 Honest advice is hard to accept.
 Truth is a hard pill to swallow.
更简单的说就是：
    
 Truth hurts.

近墨者黑，近朱者赤
    
有人直译为
   ：one who stays near vermilion gets stained red, and one who stays near ink gets stained black （vermilion 是朱砂或鲜红色的意思) 也有人译成：When you touch black, you become black; when you touch red, you become red. 这种说法，恐怕老外一时无法理解真正含意。不过他们倒有这么说： One takes the behavior of one’s company. (一个人的行为，往往受到朋友的影响。) 或 One takes on the attributes of one’s associates. (attributes 复数時是指品质、特性；associates 指朋友、同事)  简单的说，就是：  Watch the company you keep！（小心交朋友！）
   或者也可以说成:
   As he who lies with dogs will ride with fleas, how could your son learn anything good by mixing with those people? (你儿子跟那些人混在一起,能学出个好来?)

人山人海：在诗词用语（poetic expression）里，老外也有使用：“a (the) sea of faces”，颇有咱的“人山人海”的味道。例如：Looking out upon the sea of faces, Mr. A delivered a touching speech.（望着一片人山人海的听众，A先生发表一篇动人的演说。）Standing at his podium, President Clinton saw a sea of faces waving at him.（克林顿总统站在讲台上看到人山人海的人群挥手向他致意。）。可见，说话者通常要在台上或高处，才有“人海”的感觉。因此，可以说：“I saw a sea of faces from the top of the building. ”但在平地的人群中，就不说：“I saw the sea of faces.”也不说：“There is a sea of faces.”只说：“I saw a large crowd of people.”

家家有本难念的经：有人译成：“Every family cooking － pot has a black spot.”（意思是：每个家庭的锅子都有黑色的污点。）这样说法，老外恐怕不能充分了解。不过老外最常的说法是：“Many families have skeletons in the closet.（许多家庭的衣柜里都有骨骸，骨骸就是指家丑。）”；或者说：“Every family has its own source of shame.（每个家庭都有自己的丑事）”；说白些，就是：“Every family has its own problem.”

天下无不散的宴席：有人直译为：“There are no feasts in the world which do not break up at last.”老外听后，也许很难体会其中意义。如果按照美语说法，也许更易理解：“All good things come to an end.（意思是：所有好的事情，总有结束的一天。）”；假如是指好友最后也有分别的一天，那么可以说：“Eventually, all bosom friends will drift apart.（bosom friend是指知心的好友）”

平时不烧香，临时抱佛脚：有人照字直译为：“When times are easy, we do not burn the incense,but when the trouble comes, we embrace the feet of the uddha.”这种说法，老外也会一知半解。美语里一般说法是：“Worship God every day; not just in times of adversity.（要每天敬拜神，不是只在困难时。）”；对学生也可以说：“If you study hard every day, exams will not seem overwhelming.（如果你每天用功，考试就不会形成压力。）”

挂羊头，卖狗肉：有人照字直译为：“He advertises mutton, but sells dog’s flesh.”或“He hangs up a sheep’s head at the shopfront and sells dog meat.”这两种译法，恐怕老外都难理解，尤其谈到“狗肉”，他们更会反感，因为狗是他们最爱的宠物，不过老外倒有相近的说法：“He applied bait-and-switch factics in business.（他经商的策略是先引诱顾客来，再改变货物的品质。）”，“Bait-and-switch”当名词用，也可不用连字号“This store uses bait and switch policy.”或者简单的说：“Let the buyer be aware!（让消费者提高警觉）”或“Say one thing and do another.”

一言既出，驷马难追：有人译成：“One word lets slip and four horses will fail to catch it. 或 A statement that once let loose cannot be caught by fo

DeBon蝶

二.表达

  即便你的用词很好,但是表达过于简单,写出来的东西也只是高级词汇的堆砌而已.

表达过于简单是作文中常见的问题-它在很多时候其实并不影响文章的表意,但是却会使文章中重复出现很多的相似的表达,这样就使文章的味道大减.同时,表达的简单也会影响你文章的水平-简单的表达只能传达单薄的意思,往往一目了然,很经不起读.

  比如:It is hot today.这就是一个一个很简单的表达:今天很热.读了这个句子过后,你就只知道今天是热的,也不知道有多么热,同时你读完过后也不能感受到那种热.这样的句子就很干瘪,空洞,是肯定打动不了阅卷人的.

  升级:初级的版本是单纯的改变单词,使用高级一点的词使表达变得好一点:It is boiling today. Boiling沸腾的,表示很热,至少比hot好.

  中级的版本就是改变结构并加入<热>的具体感受:So boiling is it today that I keep sweating all the day!这个句子结合了比较高级的词汇和具体的感受<不停冒汗>,使<热>开始热得具体了.

  高级的版本就是细节描写,而且不出现<热>对应的词来表达<热>这个概念: In a summer afternoon, I will not be astonished to see an egg being beautifully fired on the sidewalk of any street here.这个句子就是用在人行道上可以炒蛋这样一个细节再加上一个很<冷幽默>的修饰词beautifully生动的表示了<热>.当阅卷人看到这样的句子,他/她的脸上就会露出一丝满意的微笑-这就是他们想要的句子.

DeBon蝶

文章的构思

 

前面已经提过,写作的根本还是流畅地道的语言,但是这并不意味着文章的结构和论述的本身不重要.当谈及这两个点时,就需要讨论一下文章的构思了.

 

  在讨论之前,先要说说一些所有题目共通的内容.

1).开头段

  好的开头是成功的一半.这句话其实在很多方面不一定对,但是在TOEFL考试中是很适用的.其实这里分析一下阅卷人的心态.

其实第一段就如同一个人的长相,当我们看到一个人时,我们的第一印象都是由他们的外表决定的.同样,阅卷人对每份作文也都是有第一印象的.而决定这个印象的,就是文章的开头.当我们看到美女时,我们就会经常把美女和美好的事物,积极的一方面联想到一起,所以我们往往会认为和美女有关的东西时美的.一个好的开头同样有这样的效果.阅卷人有了一个好的印象后,他/她就会在阅读完你的第一段后觉得你是一个写作不错的人.为了验证他/她的内心的这个对你积极的评价,他/她就会在你后面的写作中努力的寻找你的highlights,同时,一些不足也就被忽视了.当他们在找到一个highlight的时候,会很兴奋,因为他们对你的预判得到了证实.反之,如果你的开头是个令人作呕的老套模版开头结合nowadays和in my opinion还有一堆废话为一体,那么你就危险了.因为阅卷人会产生一个不好印象,为了验证这个不好的印象是对的,他/她会努力寻找你文章的不足,所以一些highlights就有可能被误杀,一些minor errors也很有可能被放大!

相信看完以上很reasonable的论述后,大家应该明白第一段的重要性了.

Well, 那就让我们写好第一段.

首先,我们必须明白第一段的作用:总起全文,表明观点.那么如何引出讨论来总起全文呢?有不少的考生都习惯于在第一句直接复述题目的话或者换一个方式复述题目的话,其实在我看来,这样都是不好的.复述的本身,就是没有水平的一种表现,而且开头直接的开始话题,一是太突然,二是不符合人家的习惯.一般而言,开头的第一句应该是就把要讨论的话题放在一个很general,比较宽泛的载体上提出来.比如:我们要讨论是不是要建设一个movie theater,那么我们开始的第一句就最好不要直接说现在有一个激烈讨论着的话题:是否在我们的社区修个movie theater,换之,general一点,就说:现如今,电影工业对人们的影响越来越大了,电影也早已经深入千家万户.然后,就开始转向要讨论的东西,就从宽泛逐渐过渡到具体,接下来,就说:这种影响将变得更为明显-如果一个movie theater修在我们的社区的话.这样就很自然的过渡到了movie theater.而后,就可以理所当然的引出论证的话题了:但是对于修还是不修,大家意见不同.在我看来……

我觉得,这样的开头就是比较自然的了,而且符合人家的思维习惯(如果大家有研究过NCE,也会发现NCE上面的文章很多都是又general到specific的).

这样的一个开头,大概是这样: As no doubt, movie industry, since its birth in last century, has changed everyone’s life a great deal. And now, this influence will become more tangible to our neighborhood if a movie theater is to be built nearby. However, this plan of setting up a movie theater is not a simple one for a multitude of people hold different ideas of building it or not. From my perspective…

可以看到,以上的这个段落是步步深入的,真正的入题是在第3句,前面两句的引导和铺垫让提出议论的一句变得自然了许多,这个是很有必要的.

这里还有一个例子:题目是人们为什么要读大学.按照刚刚的思路结合NCE4上面的文章的开头,这里就可以写为:Education is one of the key words of our time. In modern society, a man without a formal college education, to some degree, will be deprived of countless opportunities in many ways hence the mainstream’s choice-attending universities or colleges.

DeBon蝶

三

As Confucius, the greatest philosopher and educator living in the Chunqiu period of ancient China, commented," act and music can purify students' thought". According to this noble sage, music and act have tremendously salutary impacts on student's lives. I do strong support with his idea.

(Just as Confucius, the greatest philosopher and educator in ancient China, once commented,“art and music can purify human souls and lead us to a spiritual world lies beyond.” In the light of this noble sage’s guide, music and art have tremendously salutary impacts on students and virtually they do have, hence my perspective-every student should, more or less, be required to learn art and music)

For starters, music and art has beneficial influence on students' language abilities. In the light of a survey, it is a direct correlation that between improved language scores and the length of time spent studying the arts and music. Students who have had school music classes or act(art) classes scored 52 higher on the verbal portion of their SATs than those without arts or music instructions. Arts and music. The result of better language abilities(capabilities), obviously, is responsible for students' improved school grades and better adjusted social behavior.

(For one thing, as a matter of fact, art and music can influence students’ language capability positively a great deal. In the light of a survey, there is a direct correlation between improved language scores and the length of time spent on arts and music. Amazingly, those who are required to learn art and music in school achieve an average 52 points lead than those who are not in the verbal portion of SAT. Such a tangible improvement, more or less, could boil down to the art and music study. Consequently, art and music help students in their academic study therefore I deem it as something must-learn in school)

Moreover, art and music also can
   contribute significantly to children's intellectual development(我个人认为,提升语言和提升智力有等同的地方). My best friend Jerry, a freshman in Yale, is a perfect(quintessential也可以) case in point. A is said, he has learned violin for ten years. That experience proved to be of crucial(形容importance前面一般加paramount) importance in his study of philosophy and math. Reasoning(Concluding) that the instruction of violin can stimulate his rational thinking skills. Furthermore, many very best engineers(a multitude of the top engineers) and technical designers in the silicon valley industry are, nearly without exception, practicing musicians(对此我表示怀疑.在举例的时候,可以说有很多,但最好不说几乎所有.因为人家的information和我们的可能不同,而且人家在美国.).

(Moreover, art and music can also contribute significantly to one’s intellectual development. My best friend Jerry, a freshman in Yale, is just a quintessential case in point. Just as mentioned, he has been learning violin for more than a decade. This experience, as he said seriously, proved to be of paramount importance in his study of philosophy and mathematics, concluding that the instruction of the violin exerts some stimulation of his rational thinking. Furthermore, a multitude of the top engineers and technical designers in the silicon valley are practicing musicians.)

Last but not the least, viewing art and listening to music are optimal ways for students to reduce their academic pressures(To such two important reasons, another must be added-appreciating art and classical music, as many of us believe, is the optimal avenue to release students’ stress in academic study.). To give a demonstration,  when I am stressed by exams(Every time when I am under the intense pressure resulted form the coming exams), listening to Avril's CDs is as the best activity it is as is held by myself. I find that this activity to be effectively soothing and calming. Likewise, enjoying painting can have a similar effect. Especially, when I  lose(immerse) myself in paintings, I can feel enormous relax(enormous relax?可能用错了).
    

It is essential, consequently, that studying art and music in secondary school can be nothing but positive(can be nothing but这样的句子少来) for all students. art and music can not only spark students' potential but also help students relax themselves.  

四

When people are asked what life is, I maintain, thousand individuals will hold thousand opinions（平庸无奇的开头，开头要具体才可以吸引读者：Some live in the world in the hope of being respected; to a multitude of us, as a matter of fact, lives are all about those colorful papers-money; and to a few unfortunate people, life is something toils or bores them to death. Virtually, it is a formidable job for anyone of us common people to give an accurate definition of what life is.）.However,
     From my point of view (from my perspective), I agree with author’s opinion (强烈建议楼主把topic的观点用另外一种方式表达出来). My interpretation of this opinion（opinion这个词出现了太多词，不能体现词汇的多样性opinion＝idea, perspective, viewpoint, standpoint, stance; 当然，不用类似的意见的词汇来表达自己的观点才是高的水平：One might strive assiduously for affluence and gratifying his/her endless rapacity while being utterly unconscious of the fact that he is struggling in a banal existence-where material dominates, actually, life, could be someway higher than merely and pathetically chasing those fleeting fame and gain.要写抒情的文章，楼主的语言还是远远不够的） is that having everything cannot present a life from all aspects because, along with having everything, life also includes what you enjoy from having a thing, what you are experiencing in the process of obtaining a thing, and when the thing you expect is in your possession. (thing这个词在这句话出现了太多次，而且该句的表意很不清楚，可以改为：Why, many of us may wonder, do our lives invariably fail to satisfy us? Because we are in the thirst of being contented-we run frantically to escape the revenge mentally emptiness. Nevertheless, we found to possess is to abate such a natural panic-only via this method, might we find us contented, even fugaciously. )

       On the first place, we, by no ways, title a person as the best happiness person in the world simply by the reason that he or she has everything (你要记住,你是在抒情,语言不可以停留在9年级的水平,可以改为: We might have tried to get out of some mundane rules but can not help go behind the stereotype that put his/her happiness and possession at the different sides of an equal mark.).  To judge whether a person is very happy, it is inevitable to ask the question whether the person enjoy from what he or she has(这是句重复的话,没有意义). Facts witness and present many examples(example最好不要用,建议使用demonstration,因为这个比较少有人用,这里句型可以改为sth provide sb with a quintessential demonstration). Extremely poor as the homeless are, they are proud of their freedom(平庸,可以改为: An wealthy one might pour his scorn and derision on those who are struggling in the extreme poverty. However, the poor, to some degree is also fortune-they have never set themselves up to money as a prisoner.). An average work, without a great deal of wealth (概念错误,这里应该用income或者salary), still enjoys the leisurely life style (以我之愚见, enjoy似乎不可以这么用的, 改为: Even a comparatively lower income, virtually, would not spoil one’s leisure time if s/he can set the paper(money, of course) matters aside.). In contrast, an increasing number of CEO is beginning to complain that they are the slaves of money(写作是需要给原因的,不然别人会问-so what? 这里可以改为: Quite the reverse, astonishingly high salary, at times, can not guarantee one’s happiness-too much money brings burden in many ways simultaneously. It will suffice to mention those CEOs who work around the clock only to find s/he could barely extrude some time to use the papers. However, they still want more even they are now living in the pure-gold-made jail).

        On the second place, so important is the process that a person is experiencing to reach a goal that we cannot ignore the value of the process.  Some people learn a lot from their failure; some people pay little attention to things they get easily; some people are motivated by difficulties they have ever met to achieve their goals. (这也可以叫”抒情”?9年级的写作又出现了)

        Last, but not least (用烂的开头), a thing stands for different meanings for the same person over time. When I was young, I wanted to be older; however, when I do grow up, I expect to stop time’s flying and keep me young forever. A piece of bread is so important for a person suffering from starvation, but it is valueless for the same person when he or she has everything. (这个可以作为论证的材料?时间对人的意义和拥有的意义是很难扯上联系的,况且楼主根本没有扯)

 (最后两段我已经没有心情再改下去,实在写得……….)

        In conclusion, I believe that life means more than having everything.(永远不要重复topic)
     

如果这是你花了两个小时写的作文,那么很不幸,楼主的TOEFL作文水平仅仅停留在2-3分之间. 作为一个大学生,写出的作文是不应该这样的缺乏档次的.其实很多初中生都可以写得比这个好很多.我的语言可能会尖刻,但是绝对是没有撒谎的-我不希望让楼主对自己的写作有错误的估计-你还有很长的路要走.我给你改的前几段有很大的价值,仔细研究可以提升写作的水平.

这里有一些建议:

1.       NCE3和NCE4,楼主应该买来精读.

2.       如果你很功利的话,那就可以认真研究TWE185-至少可以保证你得个4分.

3.       4.75或者5分的文章语言是很有魅力的,所有阅读是不可少的.The Economist肯定不适合你,所有你应该将NCE4的文章好好研究.

4.       买一本Dan Brown的英文小说.