阅读笔记（第二讲）

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阅读笔记（第二讲）

文章套路
1．        新老观点对比型
A．结构：老观点＋驳斥老观点＋新观点
B．特点：喜新厌旧、标新立异
C．判断标志：
喜新厌旧的语言特征：古老的时间状语，traditionally，old，was (it was once believed)，recently（可能是老观点），usually
标新立异的语言特征：most,，many，frequently
如果发现重要的转折词则可以确定为新老观点对比型
D．新观点出现的位置：一段中部或二段开头
E．主题句：说明新观点的句子
要特别注意主题句，对于内容性的主题句尤其应当如此
2．        现象解释型
A．结构：现象＋解释
B．现象：自然科学中的现象；社会科学中的史实，由人物、时间、事件构成
C．解释：会存在多种解释，其中正确的解释是文章的主题句；有的文章也许没有正确理论（主题句），但仍属于现象解释型
3．        问题解决型
A．结构：提问＋解决
B．提问：
疑问性问题：文章一开始就是问句，有疑问词或问号；或者以 “question”，“puzzle”等词的形式出现。着重看如何回答。
任务性问题：以“difficulty”，“task”，“challenge”等词的形式出现。着重看如何完成。
C．解决：往往有多种解决方案，各有评价；往往是负评价＋……＋负评价＋正确的解决方案（通常在最后）
D．主题句：说明正确的解决方案的核心句就是主题句；但也有些文章都是大负小正的评价，此时看过程不看结果，无主题句就无内容型的主题题。
4．        结论解释型
A．总分结构
B．特征：开始先说观点，标志性强，通常是判断句，以系动词，情态动词，自由褒贬词为标志；此时可看文章各段的开头
C．主题句：如开头的判断句是文章的总论，它就是主题句
5．后三种套路的区分
        看文章开头的后半部分：描述原因的是现象解释型；讲述改进方法，解决问题的是问题解决型；更具体的描述是结论解释型

客观题题型
1．直接事实题
        A．特征：对文章的具体细节进行提问，题干有时会表示明显的因果关系
        B．做法：看笔记，做定位，回原文做同义变换
C．同义变换：
a. 换词：同义词
例：The historians have broadened the conventional view of nineteenth-century feminism.
→ The historians have expanded the traditional view of nineteenth-century feminism.
b. 换句型：名词结构换为动词搭配
例：The minority groups lack access to the sizable orders that are generated by large companies.
→ The minority groups do not have sufficient opportunity to secure business created by large corporation.
c. 逻辑变换：做逆否变换
例：The suffragists were demanding power that was not based on the institution of the family, women’s traditional sphere.
→ Those who participated in the women suffragists movement sought social roles for women that were not defined by women’s familial roles.
2．取非题
        otherwise表示相反关系；A otherwise B，文中有A，问B如何，则对A取非
简单取非：有明显的强对比的词，如on the contrary, on the other hand, contrast等，直接做180度的转变。如告诉你一个的特征，问另一个。
改善题
a．        形式：虚拟语气（标b．        志）＋表示改善或更好的说法（往往用比较级，c．        如if…, …more…）
d．        做法：回原文中找缺点，e．        做取非；如一人漏了大的，f．        拿了小的，g．        问如何改善，h．        做取非，i．        都拿。
例：However, these patterns cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind pollination because the spiral arrangement occurs in a number of non-wind-pollinated plants.
Question: It can be inferred from the passage that the claim that the spiral arrangement is an adaptation to wind pollination would be more convincing if which of the following were true?
(A) Such an arrangement occurred only in wind-pollinated plants.
(B) Such an arrangement occurred in vascular plants as a whole.
(C) Such an arrangement could be shown to be beneficial to pollen release.
(D) The number of bracts could be shown to have increased over time.
(E) The airflow patterns over the cone’s surfaces could be shown to be produced by such arrangements.
3．逻辑题（类似于逻辑单题）
支持题
a．        形式：Which of the following, if true（标b．        志）, will most support(strengthen)/weaken the view in the passage?
c．        做法：
直接事例法：文章中有抽象的的理论，我们把它具体化、量化
例：Which of the following, if true, would most clearly demonstrate the interaction mentioned in the last sentence?
(A) Female larks respond similarly both to short, simple songs and to longer, more complicated songs.
(B) Male canaries use visual ornamentation as well as elaborate song repertoires for mate attraction.
(C) Both male and female blackbirds develop elaborate visual and vocal characteristics.
(D) Male jays use songs to compete among themselves and to attract females.
(E) Male robins with elaborate visual ornamentation have as much reproductive success as rivals with elaborate vocal characteristics.
搭桥法：如文中说A → B，找 A → C → B
例：In one behavioral experiment, researchers successfully trained an anteater to distinguish between two troughs of water, one with a weak electrical field and another with none. Such evidence is consistent with researchers’ hypothesis that anteaters use electro receptors to detect electrical signals given off by prey; however, researchers as yet have been unable to detect electrical signals emanating from termite mounds, where the favorite food of anteaters live.
Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the hypothesis mentioned in the passage?
(A) Researchers are able to detect anteaters to break into an underground chamber that is emitting a strong electrical signal.
(B) Researchers are able to detect a weak electrical signal emanating from the nesting chamber of an ant colony.
(C) Anteaters are observed taking increasingly longer amounts of time to locate the nesting chambers of ants.
(D) Anteaters are observed using various angles to break into nests of ants.
(E) Anteaters are observed using the same angle used with nests of ants to break into the nests of other types of prey.
反对题
d．        釜底抽薪：原因推出结果，e．        直接驳斥原因。如文章说农民不f．        满缺地，g．        就驳斥说有地
h．        欲擒故纵（反证法）：先说你可能是正确地，i．        再逐步推出绝对荒谬的结果来，j．        从而k．        达到驳斥的目的。如文章说鸟有天文导航系统，l．        则可驳斥说，m．        如果这样的话，n．        鸟也就有了fantastic（不o．        可能）的地图系统
p．        直接否定法：直接说文章中的论断是错的。
例：The backgrounds and reasons of participants in the May insurrection of 1871 have been identified, however cursorily.
Which of the following is the most logical objections to the claim made in the passage?
(A) The February Revolution of 1848 is much less significant than the July insurrection of 1830.
(B) The backgrounds and motivations of participants in the July insurrection of1830 have been identified, however cursorily.
(C) Even less is known about the July insurrection of1830 than about the February Revolution of 1848.
(D) Historical records made during the July insurrection of1830 are less reliable than those made during the May insurrection of 1871.
(E) The importance of the July insurrection of1830 has been magnified at the expense of the significance of the February Revolution of 1848.
q．        它因法：存在其他原因，r．        如文中说 A → B，s．        题里找 C 也可以 → B
4．举例作用题
形式：题干前面是例子，后三词是in order to
做法：例子为结论服务，答案要在例子的结论中找
a．        先结论后例子：标b．        志词如，c．        for example, for instance, such as, like等，d．        此时答案往前找
e．        先例子后结论：如先讲个故事，f．        然后说由此可见；标g．        志词多为表示因果关系的词，h．        如as a result等
i．        例子和结论罗列在一起，j．        没有标k．        志词：这种情况多是先结论后例子，l．        此时答案往前找，m．        做同n．        义变换
5．信息题
形式：Which of the following is true？
The author of the passage agrees (does not agree) with which of the following?
The information in the passage answers (does not answer) which of the following question?
做法：解这类题的技巧少
a．        题干中有定位的，b．        如有if, about, concerning, regarding这类词，c．        此时可回原文找答案
d．        题干中无定位的，e．        只可根据笔记一个个做，f．        用排除法，g．        有敏感词如most,only等，h．        文中又没有提及的，i．        可首先排除
6．排除题
特征：一定有大写的EXCEPT
做法：注意文中的例举，如四小项例举容易出题；有时要做同义变换
例：Afro-American poetry owes its early forms, rhythms, vocabulary, and evangelical fervor to Wesleyan hymnals.
Question：All of the following aspects of Afro-American poetry are referred to in the passage as having been influenced by Wesley hymnals EXCEPT
(A) subject matter   (B)word choice  (C) rhythm  (D) structure  (E) religious tone
7．类比题
形式：Which of the following is most similar to the situation in…? (similar to, analogous to, parallel, consistent with)
做法：把文章中具体的内容抽象出规律来，抓住本质特征
例：Although recent years have seen substantial reductions in noxious pollutants from individual motor vehicles, the number of such vehicles has been steadily increasing. Consequently, more than 100 cites in the United Stats still have levels of toxic gases that exceed legally established limits.
Question：Which of the following most closely parallels the situation described in the two sentences?
(A) Although a town reduces its public service in order to avoid a tax increase, the town’s tax rate exceeds that of other towns in the surrounding area.
(B) Although a state passes strict laws to limit the type of toxic material that can be disposed of in public landfill, illegal dumping continues to increase.
(C) Although a town’s citizens reduce their individual use of water, the town’s water supplies continue to dwindle because of a steady increase in the total population of the town.
(D) Although a country attempts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding a tax to the price of imported goods, the sale of imported goods within the country continue to increase.
(E) Although a country reduces the speed limit on its national highway, the number of fatalities caused by automobile accidents continues to increase.

主观题题型
1．主题题
2．态度题

选项中常见的四种错误类型
1．混：张冠李戴，如把A的特征说成B，文中说A动乱，B……，但选项中却说B发生了动乱
2．偏：以偏概全，将局部特征当做全部特征
3．反：与文章中内容相反
4．无：文章中没有出现过的新内容，如文中说A去了B地，但选项中却说A开车去了B地
前两种难度大，后两种出现的多

做题注意
1．慎重对待含有强调性的语言（最高级、唯一性和比较级的选项）
2．长选项竖读法：纵向比较所有选项，尤其是开头，找到其中相同的语言部分。如果某几个选项中相同的语言部分对这个题有用，则先看这几个选项；否则，先看其他选项或者这几个选项的差异部分。
        例：参见类比题例
3．文字定位法：文（主题词）→ 题干（主题词）→ 文（主题词）

例题讲解
5．        Book 1, Reading 6, P150
In recent years the early music movement（关键词）, which advocates performing a work as it was performed at the time of its composition, has taken on the character of a crusade, particularly as it has moved beyond the sphere of medieval and baroque music and into music from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries by composers such as Mozart and Beethoven Granted（表示让步结构）, knowledge about the experience of playing old music on now-obsolete instruments has been of inestimable（⊕） value to scholars. Nevertheless（△）, the early music approach to performance raises profound and troubling questions. （大负小正）
Early music advocates assume that composers write only for the instruments available to them, but evidence suggests that composers of Beethoven’s stature imagined extraordinarily high and low notes as part of their compositions, even when they recognized that such notes could not be played on instruments available at the time. （In the score of Beethoven’s first piano concerto, there is a “wrong” note, a high F-natural where the melody obviously calls for a high F-sharp, but pianos did not have this high an F-sharp when Beethoven composed the concerto. Because Beethoven once expressed a desire to revise his early works to exploit the extended range of pianos that became available to him some years later, it seems likely that he would have played the F-sharp if given the opportunity.）（例子，长度超过5行就要读） To use a piano exactly contemporary with the work’s composition would require playing a note that was probably frustrating（负） for Beethoven himself to have had to play.（评论）
In addition（表示与上段并列）, early music advocates often inadvertently divorce music and its performance from the life of which they were, and are, a part. （The discovery that Haydn’s and Mozart’s symphonies were conducted during their lifetimes by a pianist who played the chords to keep the orchestra together has given rise to early music recordings in which a piano can be heard obtrusively in the foreground, despite evidence indicating that the orchestral piano was virtually inaudible to audiences at eighteenth-century concerts and was dropped as musically unnecessary when a better way to beat time was found.）（例子） （And although in the early nineteenth century the first three movements (sections) of Mozart’s and Beethoven’s symphonies were often played faster, and the last movement slower than today, this difference can readily be explained by the fact that at that time audiences applauded at the end of each movement, rather than withholding applause until the end of the entire work.. As a result（→）, musicians were not forced into extra brilliance in the finale in order to generate applause, as they are now.）（例子） To restore the original tempo of these symphonies represents an irrational denial of the fact that our concepts of musical intensity and excitement have quite simply, changed. （评价）
                （结论解释型）
13. It can be inferred from the passage that by “a piano exactly contemporary” (line 30) with the composition of Beethoven’s first piano concerto, the author means the kind of piano that was
        属于直接事实题
(A)        designed to be inaudible to the audience when used by conductors of orchestras.
跨区型错误，用文章其它部分讲的内容来解答定位部分（line 30）的问题，必然错误
(B)        Incapable of playing the high F-natural that is in the score of Beethoven’s original version of the concerto.
是F-sharp，注意细节变化
(C)        Unavailable to Mozart and Haydn.
跨区型错误
(D)        Incapable of playing the high F-sharp that the melody of the concerto calls for.
(E)        Influential in Beethoven’s decision to revise his early compositions.
“无”型选项
14. Which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
                属于主题题，遵循三出现原则
(A)        The early music movement has yet to resolve a number of troubling questions regarding its approach to the performance of music.
(B)        The early music movement, while largely successful in its approach to the performance of medieval and baroque music, has yet to justify its use of obsolete instruments in the performance of music by Beethoven and Mozart.
细节不能出现
(C)        The early music approach to performance often assumes that composers write music that is perfectly tailored to the limitations of the instruments on which it will be performed during their lifetimes.
细节不能出现
(D)        Although advocates of early music know much about the instruments used to perform music at the time it was composed, they lack information regarding how the style of such performances has changed since such music was written.
“无”型选项
(E)        The early music movement has not yet fully exploited the knowledge that it has gained from playing music on instruments available at the time such music was composed.
细节不能出现
15. In the second paragraph, the author discusses Beethoven’s first piano concerto primarily in order to
                属于举例作用题，这类以In order to结尾的题，正确选项往往是以illustrate，或者give an example开头的，但近年来难度有所增加，大多数选项都以这两者开头了。
Illustrate how piano music began to change in response to the extended range of pianos that became available during Beethoven’s lifetime.
Illustrate how Beethoven’s work failed to anticipate the changes in the design of instruments that were about to be made during his lifetime.
Suggest that early music advocates commonly perform music using scores that do not reflect revisions made to the music years after it was originally composed.
Illustrate how composers like Beethoven sometimes composed music that called for notes that could not be played on instruments that were currently available.
Provide an example of a piano composition that is especially amenable to being played on piano available at the time the music was composed.
16. The author suggests that the final movements of symphonies by Mozart and Beethoven might be played more slowly by today’s orchestras if which one of the following were to occur?
                属于直接事实题（中的因果关系推理），回文中定位
Orchestras were to use instruments no more advanced in design than those used by orchestras at the time Mozart and Beethoven composed their symphonies.
跨区型错误
Audiences were to return to the custom of applauding at the end of each movement of a symphony.
Audiences were to reserve their most enthusiastic applause for the most brilliantly played finales.
（小）跨区型错误
Conductors were to return to the practice of playing the chords on an orchestral piano to keep the orchestra together.
“无”型错误
Conductors were to conduct the symphonies in the manner in which Beethoven and Mozart had conducted them.
“无”型错误
17. Which one of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph?
                属于结构题，对于此类题型可参照全文结构
A generalization is made evidence undermining it is presented, and a conclusion rejecting it is then drawn.
“反”型错误
A criticism is stated and then elaborated with two supporting examples.
An assumption is identified and then evidence undermining its validity is presented.
“反”型错误
An assumption is identified and then evidence frequently provided in support of it is then critically evaluated.
“偏”型错误
Two specific cases are presented and then a conclusion regarding their significance is drawn.
顺序错误
18. It can be inferred from the passage that the author’s explanation in lines 50-54 would be most weakened if which one of the following were true?
                属于逻辑题中的反对题
Musicians who perform in modern orchestras generally receive more extensive training than did their nineteenth-century counterparts.
Breaks between the movements of symphonies performed during the early nineteenth century often lasted longer than they do today because nineteenth-century musicians needed to retune their instruments between each movement.
Early nineteenth-century orchestral musicians were generally as concerned with the audience’s response to their music as are the musicians who perform today in modern orchestras.
Early nineteenth-century audience applauded only perfunctorily after the first three movements of symphonies and conventionally withheld their most enthusiastic applause until the final movement was completed.
直接否定，抬杠法
Early nineteenth-century audiences were generally more knowledgeable about music than are their modern counterparts.
19. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following assertions regarding the early music recordings mentioned in the third paragraph?
                属于信息题（中的可定位信息题）
These recordings fail to recognize that the last movements of Haydn’s and Mozart’s symphonies were often played slower in the eighteenth century than they are played today.
跨区型错误
These recordings betray the influence of baroque musical style on those early music advocates who have recently turned their attention to the music of Haydn and Mozart.
跨区型错误
By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in eighteenth century performances, these recordings attempt to achieve aesthetic integrity at the expense of historical authenticity.
By making audible the sound of an orchestral piano that was inaudible in eighteenth century performances, these recordings unwittingly create music that is unlike what eighteenth century audiences heard.
These recordings suggest that at least some advocates of early music recognize that concepts of musical intensity and excitement have changed since Haydn and Mozart composed their symphonies.
“反”型错误
20. The author suggests that the modern audience’s tendency to withhold applause until the end of a symphony’s performance is primarily related to which one of the following?
The replacement of the orchestral piano as a method of keeping the orchestra together.
A gradual increase since the time of Mozart and Beethoven in audiences’ expectations regarding the ability of orchestral musicians.
A change since the early nineteenth century in audiences’ concepts of musical excitement and intensity.
A more sophisticated appreciation of the structural integrity of the symphony as a piece of music.
敏感词
The tendency of orchestral musicians to employ their most brilliant effects in the early movements of symphonies composed by Mozart and Beethoven.
“反”型错误
6．        Book 1, Reading 3, P69
The human species came into being at the time of the greatest biological diversity in the history of the Earth. Today, as（原因） human populations expand and alter the natural environment, they are reducing biological diversity to its lowest（敏感词） level since the end of the Mesozoic era, 65 million years ago. The ultimate consequences（结果） of this biological collision are beyond calculation, but they are certain to be harmful（负评价）, That, in essence, is the biodiversity crisis.
The history of global diversity can be summarized as follows: after the initial flowering of multicellular animals, there was a swift rise in the number of species in early Paleozoic times (between 600 and 430 million years ago), then plateaulike stagnation for the remaining 200 million years of the Paleozoic era, and finally a slow but steady climb through the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras to diversity's all-time high. This history suggests that biological diversity was hard won and a long time in coming.
Furthermore, this pattern of increase was set back by five massive extinction episodes, The most recent of these, during the Cretaceous period, is by far the most famous, because（→） it ended the age of the dinosaurs, conferred hegemony on the mammals, and ultimately made possible the ascendancy of the human species. But the cretaceous crisis was minor（比较词） compared with the Permian extinctions 240 million years ago,（P>C） during which between 77 and 96 percent of marine animal species perished. It took 5 million years, well into Mesozoic times, for species diversity to begin a significant recovery. （有很多数字连续出现不必读，不过是对上文的支持）
Within the past 10,000 years biological diversity has entered a wholly new era. Human activity has had a devastating（负评价） effect on species diversity, and the rate of human-induced extinctions is accelerating. （Half of the bird species of Polynesia have been eliminated through hunting and the destruction of native forests. ）（Hundreds of fish species endemic to Lake Victoria are now threatened with extinction following the careless introduction of one species of fish, the Nile perch. ）（例子）The list of such bio geographic disasters is extensive. （评价，凡是在关于自然、生物的文章中有人出现，往往是负评价）
Because every species is unique and irreplaceable, the loss of biodiversity is the most profound process of environmental change. Its consequences（→） are also the least predictable because the value of Earth's biota (the fauna and flora collectively) remains largely unstudied and unappreciated, unlike（≠） material and cultural wealth, which we understand because they are the substance of our everyday lives. Biological wealth is usually taken for granted. This is a serious strategic error（负评价）, one that will be increasingly regretted（负评价） as time passes. The biota is not only part of a country's heritage, the product of millions of years of evolution centered on that place; it is also a potential source for immense untapped material wealth in the form of food, medicine, and other commercially important substance. （文章最后四五行可略读，如出现的是重复性的内容，飞速掠过，但如在倒数第二段之前出现强转折，则必须注意）
7. Which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(A)        The reduction in biodiversity is an irreversible process that represents a setback both for science and for society as a whole.
(B)        The material and cultural wealth of a nation are insignificant when compared with the country's biological wealth.
(C)        The enormous diversity of life on Earth could not have come about without periodic extinctions that have conferred preeminence on one species at the expense of another.
(D)        The human species is in the process of initiating a massive extinction episodes look minor by comparison.
(E)        The current decline in species diversity is human-induced tragedy of incalculable proportions that has potentially grave consequences for the human species.
8. Which one of the following situations is most analogous to the history of global diversity summarized in lines 10-18 of the passage?
(A)        The number of fish in a lake declines abruptly as a result of water pollution. Then makes a slow comeback after cleanup efforts and the passage of ordinances against dumping.
(B)        The concentration of chlorine in the water supply of large city fluctuates widely before stabilizing at a constant and safe level.
(C)        An old-fashioned article of clothing goes in and out of style periodically as a result of features in fashion magazines and the popularity of certain period films.
(D)        After valuable mineral deposits are discovered, the population of a geographic region booms then levels off an d begins to decrease at a slow and steady race.
(E)        The variety of styles stocked by a shoe store increases rapidly after the store opens, holds constant for many months, and then gradually creeps upward.
9. The author suggests which one of the following about the Cretaceous crisis?
(A)        It was the second most devastating extinction episode in history.
(B)        It was the most devastating extinction episode up un until that time.
(C)        It was less devastating to species diversity than is the current biodiversity crisis.
(D)        The rate of extinction among marine animal species as a result of the crisis did not approach 77 percent.
(E) The dinosaurs comprised the great majority of species that perished during the crisis.
10. The author mentions the Nile perch in order to provide an example of
(A) a species that has become extinct through human activity
(B) the typical lack of foresight that has led to biogeographic disaster
(C) a marine animal species that survived the Permian extinctions
(D) a species that is a potential source of material wealth
(E) the kind of action that is necessary to reverse the decline in species diversity
11. All of the following are explicitly mentioned in the passage as contributing to the extinction of species EXCEPT
(A) hunting
(B) pollution
(C) deforestation
(D) the growth of human populations
(E) human-engineered changes in the environment
12. The passage suggests which one of the following about material and cultural wealth?
                属于信息题（中可定位的）
(A)        Because we can readily assess the value of material and cultural wealth, we tend not to take them for granted.
(B)        Just as the biota is a source of potential material wealth, it is an untapped source of cultural wealth as well.
(C)        some degree of material and cultural wealth may have to be sacrificed if we are to protect our biological heritage.
(D)        Material and cultural wealth are of less value than biological wealth because they have evolve over a shorter period of time.
(E)        Material wealth and biological wealth are interdependent in a way that material wealth and cultural wealth are not.
13. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the consequences of the biodiversity crisis?
(A)        The loss of species diversity will have as immediate an impact on the material of nations as on their biological wealth.
(B)        The crisis will likely end the hegemony of the human race and bring about the ascendancy of another species.
(C)        The effects of the loss of species diversity will be dire, but we cannot yet tell how dire.
(D)        it is more fruitful to discuss the consequences of the crisis in terms of the potential loss to humanity than in strictly biological loss to humanity than in strictly biological terms.
(E)        The consequences of the crisis can be minimized, but the pace of extinctions can not be reversed.

作业：A 32/36/108/114/129/131/216/218/264/266