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2.3 other natural science
2.3.1 Glass
V1 by zhangquan8882
一篇是关于glass得，broken，strength，broken into small pieces 不长，两端，不好意思 只能记起几个关键词。
V2 by gzpeva
.glass 那篇，3段，比较长。
有一道问，用于建筑的玻璃应该怎么弄，细节题，在第二段有
我选的是： 让玻璃的exterior 比 interior 降温rapildly， temper 什么的
有人考古了，可以读下，对做题有帮助还有一道：有一种玻璃，它碎的时候 不会产生大块，这样不会伤到人，细节题，考到了。单词的同义替换，原文中有句话高亮，问 integrity 在文中的意思 与选项中那个最相近
选项有：
Conformity
Complexity
还有三个，感觉比较容易排除。
最后一道， 好像那种随后产生小碎片的玻璃，在制作过程中 会很难控制 error什么的， 所以不能用来干嘛
V3 by zhepeking
玻璃的强度那篇，JJ里面提到过，可算知道为什么JJ里面就提了一句话了，因为科普性很强，一直在对比工业玻璃和普通玻璃的特性
出了许多道细节题
还有一道类比题，记得好像是定位在第三段里面的,需要大家阅读的时候看的仔细一点
LZ没有遇到主旨题
所以刚开始轮廓法看，只能回头又看了一遍。。。
V4 by Gratuitous
说玻璃刚刚造好的时候是很坚固的，但是之后后就开始老化有很多方式可以使它强化。比如说坚固的电脑屏幕是玻璃制作时采用无空气冷却，有的还往玻璃表层加神马玩意让他坚固但影响透光性，还有的用S开头的化学元素掺和，还有的采用什么新结构，碎的时候会碎成小块儿块儿，不伤人。反正比较简单，题目都偏细节，问的都是每一种工艺的的特别之处，或者给个特别的性质，让猜是哪种工艺。不难，虽然我错的很多
V5 by clair1024
GLASS 那篇
P1玻璃易碎 有方法让他变得结实 比如。。
P2两种temper让玻璃更结实
P3。。integrity 高亮（题中问 哪个词替换integrity的话 差异最小 根据上下文说钢化玻璃小块的不易碎 有完整性）
V6 by anono2010
1, 关于玻璃的制作，以及有机玻璃 （tempered glass）具体的制作过程，好处。（这个应该可以考古得到，因为我有印象我在哪里看过）
有一个问题是举了其他几种东西的例子，问哪一个是跟有机玻璃一样的性质，因为文章里有提到有机玻璃的一个“缺点”就是碎了会碎得很细小，但这一点对于安全来说是却是好事。（我选的就是xxx, but....有一个转折的那个，不知道对不对）。
背景资料 by zhu8809 （仅供参考）
Flawed Beauty:. the problem with toughened glass
On 2nd August 199.9, a particularly hot day in the town of Cirencester in the UK, a large pane of toughened glass in the roof of a shopping centre at Bishops Walk shattered without warning and fell from its frame. When fragments were analysed by experts at the giant glass manufacturer Pilkington, which had made the pane, they found that minute crystals of nickel sulphide trapped inside the glass had almost certainly caused the failure.
'The glass industry is aware of the issue,' says Brian Waldron, chairman of the standards committee at the Glass and Glazing Federation, a British trade association, and standards development officer at Pilkington. But he insists that cases are few and far between. 'It's a very rare phenomenon,' he says.
Others disagree. 'On average I see about one or two buildings a month suffering from nickel sulphide related failures,' says Barrie Josie, a consultant engineer involved in the Bishops Walk investigation. Other experts tell of similar experiences. Tony Wilmott of London-based consulting engineers Sandberg, and Simon Armstrong at CIadTech Associates in Hampshire both say they know of hundreds of cases. 'What you hear is only the tip of the iceberg,' says Trevor Ford, a glass expert at Resolve Engineering in Brisbane, Queensland. He believes the reason is simple: 'No-one wants bad press.'
Toughened glass is found everywhere, from cars and bus shelters to the windows, walls and roofs of thousands of buildings around the world. It's easy to see why. This glass has five times the strength of standard glass, and when it does break it shatters into tiny cubes rather than large, razor-sharp shards. Architects love it because large panels can be bolted together to make transparent walls, and turning it into ceilings and floors is almost as easy.
It is made by heating a sheet of ordinary glass to about 620°C to soften it slightly, allowing its structure to expand, and then cooling it rapidly with jets of cold air. This causes the outer layer of the pane to contract and solidify before the interior. When the interior finally solidifies and shrinks, it exerts a pull on the outer layer that leaves it in permanent compression and produces a tensile force inside the glass. As cracks propagate best in materials under tension, the compressive force on the surface must be overcome before the pane will break, making it more resistant to cracking.
The problem starts when glass contains nickel sulphide impurities. Trace amounts of nickel and sulphur are usually present in the raw materials used to make glass, and nickel can also be introduced by fragments of nickel alloys falling into the molten glass. As the glass is heated, these atoms react to form tiny crystals of nickel sulphide. Just a tenth of a gram of nickel in the furnace can create up to 50,000 crystals.
These crystals can exist in two forms: a dense form called the alpha phase, which is stable at high temperatures, and a less dense form called the beta phase, which is stable at room temperatures. The high temperatures used in the toughening process convert all the crystals to the dense, compact alpha form. But the subsequent cooling is so rapid that the crystals don't have time to change back to the beta phase. This leaves unstable alpha crystals in the glass, primed like a coiled spring, ready to revert to the beta phase without warning.
When this happens, the crystals expand by up to 4%. And if they are within the central, tensile region of the pane, the stresses this unleashes can shatter the whole sheet. The time that elapses before failure occurs is unpredictable. It could happen just months after manufacture, or decades later, although if the glass is heated - by sunlight, for example - the process is speeded up. Ironically, says Graham Dodd, of consulting engineers Arup in London, the oldest pane of toughened glass known to have failed due to nickel sulphide inclusions was in Pilkington's glass research building in Lathom, Lancashire. The pane was 27 years old.
Data showing the scale of the nickel sulphide problem is almost impossible to find. The picture is made more complicated by the fact that these crystals occur in batches. So even if, on average, there is only one inclusion in 7 tonnes of glass, if i you experience one nickel sulphide failure in your building, that probably means you've got a problem in more than one pane. Josie says that in the last decade he has worked on over 15 buildings with the number of failures into double figures.
One of the worst examples of this is Waterfront Place, which was completed in 1990. Over the following decade the 40 storey Brisbane block suffered a rash of failures. Eighty panes of its toughened glass shattered due to inclusions before experts were finally called in. John Barry, an expert in nickel sulphide contamination at the University of Queensland, analysed every glass pane in the building. Using a studio camera, a photographer went up in a cradle to take photos of every pane.
These were scanned under a modified microfiche reader for signs of niclrel sulphide crystals. 'We discovered at least another 120 panes with potentially dangerous inclusions which were then replaced,' says Barry. 'It was a very expensive and time-consuming process that took around six months to complete.' Though the project cost A$1.6 million (nearly £700,000), the alternative - re-cladding the entire building - would have cost ten times as much.
toughened glass为钢化玻璃
当钢化玻璃破碎时，它的碎片不像普通玻璃一样。 钢化玻璃有时会突然破碎，“热胀冷缩”，外层比内层先收缩，天暖和的时候才会膨胀。
Brian Waldron在英文原文中一共出现了三次。第一次出现：“‘The glass industry is aware of the issue,’ says Brian Waldron.”意思是：“Brian Waldron说：‘整个玻璃行业已经意识到了这个问题（在没有任何征兆的情况下，一种硫化镍微型晶体可以导致钢化玻璃破碎）。’”第二次出现：“But he insists that cases are few and far between.”意思是：“但他坚持认为这种案例只不过是沧海一粟罢了。”第三次出现：“‘It’s a very rare phenomenon,’ he says.”意思是：“他说：‘这是一个非常罕见的现象。’”
Trevor Ford在原文中一共出现了两次。第一次出现：“‘What you hear is only the tip of the iceberg, ’ says Trevor Ford”意思是：“Trevor Ford说：‘你所听到的只是冰山一角（言外之意，实际上，硫化镍导致钢化玻璃破裂这类问题发生了很多次，但被我们听到的很少）。”第二次出现：“He believes the reason is simple: ‘No-one wants bad press.’”意思是说：“他认为（上述这件事的）原因很简单：‘没有人喜欢坏消息。’”
Graham Dodd在原文中只出现了一次：“Ironically, says Graham Dodd … the oldest pane of toughened glass known to have failed due to nickel sulphide inclusions … was 27 years old.”意思是：“Graham Dodd说，具有讽刺意味的是，由于含有硫化镍而导致破裂的钢化玻璃中，使用时间最长的一块用了27年。”（原文中出现了“最”这样含义，原文中“使用时间最长”和选项中“出事时间最晚”是一个意思。）
John Barry在原文中一共出现了三次。第一次出现：“John Barry, an expert in nickel sulphide contamination at the University of Queensland, analysed every glass pane in the building.”意思是：“Queensland大学硫化镍方面的专家 John Barry检查了这栋大楼中的每一块玻璃。”第二次出现：“‘We discovered at least another 120 panes with potentially dangerous inclusions which were then replaced,’ says Barry.”意思是：“Barry说：‘我们发现还有另外的120块玻璃也存在同样的危险，后来将它们换掉了。’”第三次出现：“‘It was a very expensive and time-consuming process that took around six months to complete.’”意思是说：“（替换存在危险的玻璃）是一个昂贵而又费时的过程，它花了大约整整六个月的时间。” |
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