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文言文 vitalia 基本确认
V1
Indian art on the cliff
P1 a kind of carving on the cliff in northwestern US regions where a Indian group lived is called vertical something.
P2. because a female researcher found this kind of art in lakota people's territory and the territory of other oyata culture (oyata includes lakota), she attributed the kind of art exclusively to oyata people. she also found this kind of art to be a communication system.
P3. the author thinks the existing archaeological evidences are not strong enough to support the female researcher's conclusion that the kind of art on the cliff only belongs to oyata culture. the author thinks this kind of art belongs to many culture of a certain time. his evidence is that in some place in Canada, there is also this kind of art.

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Natural Science Division

2.1.        Biology

2.1.1.        ★眼睛敏感度**
感谢 tracy沁, charlottechi, sunny7648 & duke3d001 750

文言文 nowwsy 已确认
讲的是人类眼睛的眨眼之类的一种定义为M的行为可以使人们看清楚静态物体stationary objects
第一段:开头就提到一个假设。第一段先给了一个定义,解释了Microsaccade这个东西。大概是说什么眨眼之类的眼睛自己的运动,然后说researchers have been unsure about the function of Microsaccade,甚至曾经有的researcher have gone so far居然说这种眼睛自己的活动可能会因为blurring什么的对眼睛造成伤害。(后注:这种假设是错误的)。(这里有题,问文章提到这种对于Microsaccade功能的解释是为什么)接着第一段后面说了又有另外一种解释,说是这个M吧,可以让人们的眼睛看清楚静止的物体。
第二段:前半部分说了支持这种假设的证据,后半部分提出反对的意见,讲了一些眼球看物体的反应。还是拿青蛙作对比,说青蛙看不见静止的只看见活动的,但是人可以,因为人的眼睛有motion还是怎么的。说这种睡眠比较为深度睡眠更难醒,而且单从predator的角度来看,这种假设也难合理
第三段:继续提一些反对这种假设的证据。说了一个实验,就说科学家找来一群人,让他们一直对着电脑频幕的一个central dot看,然后问他们对于电脑屏幕上的peripheral dot的视觉反应。接下来这段...我不是很明白他们之间的因果关系...反正大概意思是说,那些人看着看着,觉得那些peripheral dot在慢慢消失fading,而他们的Microsaccade也在逐渐变缓(sparser数量减少and slower),然后又恢复normal when the peripheral reappear。
结构:提出假设+推翻假设+实验结论
补充:首先提出一个概念Microsaccede,下简称m,中文是微动眼,指眼睛自然的细微运动。研究人员提出假设微动眼的作用可以使我们看得清静止的东西。在进化的过程中,视觉在看动态事物方面进化较快,之后讲了一些原因,有一个是因为动物可以见到猎物逃走。人的眼进化出微动眼帮助人不仅看到motion还能够看到静止事物。之后对比了人和青蛙。最后视觉神经是如何发生作用。神经一般是在看motion时才firing,而微动眼帮助人类即使在看静止的事物神经都可以keep firing。

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考题:
1)What is the theme of the passage:选主要讨论一种假设
2)What is the function of the substance of Microsaccade:illustrate科学家对于Microsaccade功能不能达成共识。
3)视觉方面的神经元的运作方式之类的。比如什么neuron会 generate more electro...(有着“电”的词根的某单词)with response to moving objects than to stationary objects(有题)
4)infer题:从文中可以推出最后一段试验中的subject干什么呢:是M帮助人看到什么东西来的。
(这题要对experiment的结果要求看仔细点,关系有点复杂。)记得其中2个选项是M开头,3个选项是visual neutron开头。
5)第二段有一个in additional,问作用
6) 推断视觉神经在青蛙的作用:备选对motion的反应比对静止事物强烈得多
7)主题
8)一道题是下面哪一条会削弱:是关于fixational eye movements和动物对所处环境危险程度的敏感程度的……

Wikipedia:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsaccade
(疑似)原文未缩减 gitarrelieber
节选自Windows on the Mind (Scientific American Magazine @ August 2007)

And yet only recently have researchers come to appreciate the profound importance of such “fixational” eye movements. For five decades, a debate has raged about whether the largest of these involuntary movements, the so-called microsaccades, serve any purpose at all. Some scientists have opined that microsaccades might even impair eyesight by blurring it. But recent work has made the strongest case yet that the seminuscule ocular meanderings separate vision from blindness when a person looks out at a stationary world.

Indeed, animal nervous systems have evolved to detect changes in the environment, because spotting differences promotes survival. Motion in the visual field may indicate that a predator is approaching or that prey is escaping. Such changes prompt visual neurons to respond with electrochemical impulses. Unchanging objects do not generally pose a threat, so animal brains – and visual systems – did not evolve to notice them. Frogs are an extreme case. A fly sitting still on the wall is invisible to a frog, as are all static objects. But once the fly is aloft, the frog will immediately detect it and capture it with its tongue.

Frogs cannot see unmoving objects because, as Helmholtz hypothesized, an unchanging stimulus leads to neural adaptation, in which visual neurons adjust their output such that they gradually stop responding. Neural adaptation saves energy but also limits sensory perception. Human visual system does much better than a frog’s at detecting unmoving objects, because human eyes create their own motion. Fixational eye movements shift the entire visual scene across the retina, prodding visual neurons into action and counteracting neural adaptation. They thus prevent stationary objects from fading away.

The results of these experiments, published in 2000 and 2002, showed that microsaccades increased the rate of neural impulses generated by both LGN and visual cortex neurons by ushering stationary stimuli, such as the bar of light, in and out of a neuron’s receptive field, the region of visual space that activates it. This finding bolstered the case that microsaccades have an important role in preventing visual fading and maintaining a visible image. And assuming such a role for microsaccades, our neuronal studies of microsaccades also began to crack the visual system’s code for visibility. In our monkey studies we found that microsaccades were more closely associated with rapid bursts of spikes than single spikes from brain neurons, suggesting that bursts of spikes are a signal in the brain that something is visible.

In our experiments, we asked volunteers to perform a version of Troxler’s fading task. Our subjects were to fixate on a small spot while pressing or releasing a button to indicate whether they could see a static peripheral target. The target would vanish and then reappear as each subject naturally fixated more – and then less – at specific times during the course of the experiment. During the task, we measured each person’s fixational eye movements with a high-precision video system.

As we had predicted, the subjects’ microsaccades became sparser, smaller and slower just before the target vanished, indicating that a lack of microsaccades– leads to adaptation and fading. Also consistent with our hypothesis, microsaccades became more numerous, larger and faster right before the peripheral target reappeared. These results, published in 2006, demonstrated for the first time that microsaccades engender visibility when subjects try to fix their gaze on an image and that bigger and faster microsaccades work best for this purpose. And because the eyes are fixating – resting between the larger, voluntary saccades – in the vast majority of the time, microsaccades are critical for most visual perception.

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2.1.2.        鸟预测地震**
V1 tracy沁
鸟可以预先感知地震
P1 开头是说二月的什么(好像是天气)一般稳定,但是就在具体的某年某月某日,不寻常发生了。一群seabirds 飞到了interior of……。后来这里发生了地震。之后还说有类似例子。
P2 解释这一现象
P3 忘了
第一题 问文章举了哪种动物的例子  选E - birds,选项有A - wildlife 其他的忘了
主旨题A - a argument of ……over a phenomena; E - a research report about a phenomena (题目是不是report忘了,反正有research)  其他选项都不对,应该就这两个里选,我选了E rainrooney 720 V38 说应该选A,因为作者只是提供了这么一种可能性,并没有深入的科学研究。

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V2 sipipi
P1. 智利的海岸边的鸟在地震前一个多小时成群的飞到了内陆,这与那些自认为对天气比较了解的人认为的不符,因为没有预示要坏天气( 考点:这种天气通认为的是什么? 答案: 天气不好了的时候鸟会成群飞掉)。
p2. 有一种解释是说鸟在地震前感受到了陆地深处的细微的波动。 但是, (注意!),如果是这样的话它们就不应该往陆地飞呀!(是考点,好像是言下之意就应该留在coast,或者往平静的海里飞,具体记不清了)。所以,很有可能是鸟误认了某种XXX (也许是地震电磁波)为海啸要来,所以往陆地飞 (另一种理解是鸟感受到了地震带来的海啸的电磁波,所以往陆地飞,记不清了,总之好像理清了)。
p3. 在中国(注意,我们伟大的祖国出现了!)(=。=楼主亮了),早就有记录地震前鸡鸭归圈,鸡犬不宁,老鼠搬家,等等等等。看来这些动物都能感受到地震带来的某种信号。最后好像升华了一下,具体怎么说忘了。

V3 overmatch V32
智利地震的我也碰到了。
有一道是问为什么那些weather-wise的人会觉得disoriented.第一段里面说2月份的时候智利的天气是steady的,但是1835年2月的这天鸟成群飞向内陆,使weather-wise的人很disoriented.这样说起来应该选天气不稳定。不过后面答案里面和天气稳定相关的只有一个“稳定的天数比平时长”。。。囧~然后还有个是说因为鸟儿感知到了坏天气要来。我选的是这个。

V4 emmachen710 V38
讲到智利中部的鸟能预测地震;预测地震的能力说明鸟很特别的能力,其他动物也是,就列举了其他国家的动物在灾难来临前的表现

文言文 vitalia (上下均有中国出现,增加了古文的可信度)
V1
在某个地方的夏天,在那段时间里都会是stable weather, 说那是古人的wisdom(大概是说他们能准确预估气候), 但是明明这段时间里天气都要很stable,却突然有一群某种鸟群体飞走,后来发现原来在他们有这种行为之后有地震的到来,(这里好像有题,是问说这些古人的wisdom认为这群鸟类群体飞走后聚在一块通常代表什么,我选代表天气要变坏了还是什么stable weather要结束了之类的)
然后就开始解释那种鸟类是如何有这些行为的
后面开始列举很多鸟类他们也有类似的情况,举了中国的一些地方,还有其它国家的一些地方都有出现这些情况
有一题是问作者举这么多地方的例子都提到什么共通的东西

V2
1p 在一个地方2月一直是气候stable的夏天,但是某日发生的一件事,误导了当地对天气很了解的当地人。这件事就是seabird鸟群突然一窝蜂的从coast往内陆飞(这个很重要,我会讲清楚)。 结果一个多小时后发生地震揭示了这个现象。举了两个其它历史上发生的果的类似事件:鸟类异常行为——〉地震
2p 那么就假设(有两种猜测),要么鸟群是感知到了微震(人感知不到),要么是。。。(忘了)。但如果是鸟群感知道了微震,就会知道有地震危险,不会向内陆飞,而是远离危险,应该向海上飞.那么这是为什么呢?解释说可是这样的,鸟群错误的把感知到的什么什么当成了indicator of storm,他们以为暴风雨来了,所以远离大海,往内路飞。(这段要看清楚,我说得已经八九不离十了)
3p 举了3-4个动物预测地震的例子,中国发现鸭子不下水,哪发现鸡不回笼等等。最后一句话总结,说这么多动物都能感知,可能还是大气中电子什么阐释了微妙的变化。
问题
文中所有例子都提到了什么 A wildlife E birds 我选的鸟,大家上考场再扫一眼
按照那些“对天气很了解的人”一直以来的认识,应该怎样:“typically, seabird如果往内陆飞,多是天气要发生变化”(很确定)

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2.1.3.        海豚的声音**
V1 scottrade  
Dolphin的声音。三段,不长

文言文 nowwsy 已确认V1, Golden认为V2和V1基本雷同, 故一同保留
海豚定位 海豚的文章不同,大意差不多,讨论海豚声音定位如何避免跟别的声音混淆

V1
P1海豚利用click和emission来游泳,并且能够区分船只的噪音,海底其他动物的声音,同伴的声音。比如一种虾,发出的声音很像是海豚发出的,人类一般不能区別出。[此处有题,答案是海豚对各种声音的辨別力比人类强。]
P2第二段开始讲述海豚具体的辨別声音的过程,比较复杂,大概是收到声音后再自己发声,然后通过回音等等来分辨。此处讲到海豚的emission是有规律的频率变化。[有题,问 emission的性质。答案是频率改变,但是有规律可循,可以预测。]

V2
P1 use acoustical method in a noisy environment.
P2 talk about why they can avoid the noise. Basically only focus on how the acoustics works. Detect clicks by repeat rate, change of frequency is not in a fixed pattern. Whistle frequency change in a consistent pattern
Q1: TOPIC. D, E is close in the words used. But E is correct.
D: present information about a problematic issue in environment of particular animal.
E: explain the method used for a problematic issue in particular environment.
Q2. what is correct about whistle and clicks.

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2.1.4.        ★鸟学说话**
V1 floret0306
阅读考到一篇古文(详见下面文言文): 文章我感觉基本一样。
1 问到了一个细节的削弱,不难定位就成了,其他没有跳出考古的问题

V2 sunny7648
还有一篇是说Starling的。一开始我还以为是说斯大林同志。。后来才知道是一只鸟。现在查字典好像叫什么星掠鸟。
科学家研究这种鸟的习性很麻烦,需要花很多很多的时间精力,所以不好研究(此处有考题问为什么鸟的习性不好研究)。
后来科学家发现可以从starling会模仿(mimic)各种voice来研究它们的生活和social 啥的。
接著就是一个实验,没怎么看懂,是研究这种鸟在不同情况下模仿声音的不同程度。并且surprisingly的是它可以模仿的声音可以发出不同的tone的音调。发现这是一种鸟的social 的一种方式。
最后一段说这种鸟从小为了得到食物就开始模仿父母和附近“邻居”(这里是不是邻居我不确定,但这里有考题,就是问小鸟为了成长是怎样做的,我选了通过模仿父母和“邻居”的声音)。

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文言文 floret0306 楼主自考,100%确认
V1
starling 鳥學話:不難,主要是講這種鳥怎麼學周圍的人講話。有個考點要小心,問這個幼鳥從小怎麼學話的,文中說的是跟養活它的鳥們學的,比如父母,兄弟姐妹sibling,答案 是他們跟父母兄弟姐妹學的。不是跟父母在一起的時間長過跟兄弟姐妹在一起的時間。

V2
一種動物還是烏模仿人說話的問題。
第一段:starling(歐掠鳥)這種鳥可以模仿和vocalize。但是因為它們flock and vocalize too much, too frequently, too.... 所以science studies很少。 最近剛做了一個實驗, 說明starling不僅模仿自然界的聲音,還模仿人的聲音。
第二段:說這個實驗。把幼鳥分成組,只跟人關在一起。發現那組人說話的多,那一組的鳥vocalize就多。 說明幼鳥是通過人的話來學習發音的。而且幼鳥還都模仿
discourse和phrase, 不是單個的word。又說自然界,幼鳥是通過學習neighbor的鳥,比如自己的parents and ...。
第三段,忘了,沒題。

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V3
關於starling---八哥的研究,這是一種叫聲音域(compass)很寬的的鳥,甚至與模仿人的聲音(鳥類中的和旋手機),說得是以前很少有這方面的研究(有題),因為需要大範圍,長時間的研究,而這通常做不到。然後說現在通過實驗可以做到。。據了一個可行的例子證明瞭八哥可以通過和人的接觸(有題)就會模仿人的聲音。所以得出一個結論,八哥小時候就開始接受家庭的音樂薰陶了(有題)。
題目:
1)主題題:describe an experiment researching a phenomenon(我選的, 還有一個選項比較模糊,建議大家再看看)
2)如果下面哪個成立,說明這個實驗沒道理? (感覺像邏輯)
在幼鳥即使在人一句話都沒說的那組,一樣能學會發音。
3)在wild的情況,幼鳥如何vocalize. 答:學習他們的parents and sibling
4) 為什麼科學研究會少? 答:
(1)因為flock and vocalize too much, too frequently
(2)因為需要大範圍,長時間的研究,而這通常做不到。然後說現在通過實驗可以做到

V4
第一段:一種鳥(也不認識),能模仿人的講話等,但是很少有科學實驗記錄這種鳥在wide裏面的模仿能力。為什麼呢?因為…(羅裏巴索給了回答,題目竟然考到了,paraphrase一下)
第二段:但是,科學家還是做了實驗來看這種鳥的模仿人的講話。這個實驗中,鳥兒們被分成了好幾組,有的呢和人沒有什麼接觸,有的呢和人有很多接觸。(此處有一個考點,問哪個不是這個實驗的特徵,選“鳥兒們和人有很多對話的”要仔細看,鳥兒們和人親密接觸,但是並沒有和人有語言交流)。然後實驗發現:鳥兒們很厲害啊,能模仿人講話不說,還能模仿不同的語調。而且,和人們有更多接觸的鳥兒們更愛顯擺inference就是鳥兒們對於周圍的環境很有interest)
第三段,忘了…考點都在前兩段。”

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(疑似)原文未缩减 gitarrelieber
节选自Social influences on vocal development (@ Cambridge University Press 1997)
Author: Charles T. Snowdon, Martine Hausberger

The vocal talent of starlings has been known since antiquity, when Pliny considered their ability to mimic human speech noteworthy. Ornithologists know that this species possesses a rich repertoire of call and songs, composed of whistles, clicks, snarls, and screeches. In addition, starlings are well known for their ability to mimic the sounds of other animals or even mechanical noises. Descriptions of starling song in the past reflect the difficulty of describing all the variety of sounds included. Witherby mentioned a “lively rambling melody of throaty warbling, chiring, clicking and gurgling notes interspersed with musical whistles and pervaded by a peculiar creaking quality.”

This complexity explains why detailed studies of starling song have delayed long after the arrival of the sound spectrograph. As mentioned by West & King, “the problem with starlings is that they vocalized too much, too often and in too great numbers, sometimes in choruses numbering in the thousands. Even the seemingly elementary step of creating an accurate catalogue of the vocal repertoire of wild starlings is an intimidating task because of the variety of their sounds.”

Chaiken have compared the sons of young males raised in different social conditions: either with a wild-caught adult song tutor, individually housed but tape-tutored by a tape-recording or raised in total isolation. All birds had been taken from the nest at an early age (8-10 days) and were hand raised. Untutored birds produced mostly an abnormal song, where even the basic organization of song was missing. In contrast, both tape- and live-tutored birds developed songs with a normal basic organization, but with some syntactical abnormalities for the tape-tutored birds. Tape-tutored birds had repertoires half as large as those of live-tutored birds. Large differences occurred between both groups of birds in their …

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