[资料下载] GMAT资料 - Manhattan笔记更新中（第7-13章）

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【Chapter 6】【抓抓修订版】
这章的内容之前没发现原来CC整理过了，感谢亲爱的ccmoom的贡献！^3^CC的原稿（WORD版）见本帖第9楼附件。

标记▲的内容是抓抓补充修改的部分，欢迎猛拍～～

1、形容词与副词是常见的修饰语：形容词只能修饰名词或代词；而副词可以修饰除了名词或代词的一切词，如动词、形容词、副词、短语、介词甚至整个句子。副词通常以-ly结尾。

要注意像feel这样的▲系动词后面接形容词而不是副词，因为该形容词修饰的是名词主语而不是feel。如：
  Amy is feel GOOD. (good修饰主语Amy.)

2、在语法考题里经常会出现两个语法修饰结构：
形容词+形容词+名词：在此结构中，两个形容词都修饰名词;
副词+形容词+名词：在此结构中，副词修饰形容词，形容词修饰名词。
这两个结构的意思是不一样的，要通过作者的意思来选择。如：（▲经典例子！！）
     Wrong：  James Joyce is Max’s SUPPOSEDLY Irishancestor.
    Right：  James Joyce is Max’s SUPPOSEDIrish ancestor.
  在这个句子里James Joyce不一定是Max的ancestor，但James Joyce一定是爱尔兰人。所以选择用supposed去修饰名词ancestor。

Wrong：  Max’s grandmother is his SUPPOSED Irishancestor.
Right :    Max’s grandmotheris his SUPPOSEDLY Irish ancestor.
  在这句里，问题变成了Max’s grandmother是不是爱尔兰人，而不是grandmother是不是Max的ancestor。所以这里应该选择supposedly修饰Irish。

3、名词修饰语（▲NounModifiers）目的在于告诉你更多关于被修饰名词的信息，或者说明句子具体讨论的是哪一个名词。作用就像是一个长的形容词，前一两个单词决定它的词性。
修饰语与被修饰名词：

Type/first word	位置	Example
形容词	名词前 名词后	The LAZY cat took a nap. The cat, LAZY form overeating, took a nap.
介词	名词前 名词后	On the couch, the cat took a nap. The cat ON the couch took a nap.
过去分词	名词前 名词后	The TIRED cat took a nap. The cat, TIRED from chasing mice, took a nap.
现在分词	名词前 名词后	The sleeping cat took a nap. The cat sleeping on the rug is named “sue”.
关系代词	名词后	The grey cat, WHICH loves tuna, took a nap. The cat THAT lives next door is noisy. A person WHO  lives next door is noisy. The city WHERE I live is noisy.
其它名词	名词前 名词后	A LOVER of mice, my cat hunts night and day, The cat, a TABBY raised on a farm, took a nap.

4、一个修饰其它名词的名词，叫做同位语。如表里的最后一个例子。

Prep08中的解释：
同位语：同位语由unrestricted adjectival phrase而来，同位语的修饰对象：名词或名词短语或代词
同位结构的特征

起修饰语的作用,一般用于修饰名词或名词短语；同位语解释的是整个名词，不是名短中某个词，故同位语不是核心词修饰。

必须对其修饰对象具有解释力；

位置：名词前或名词后，一般在修饰对象的后面；

不影响主谓一致（谓语应该和主语保持一致，而不是和同位语）；
同位结构中名词的数可以和其修饰对象的数不一致。

同位结构的形式

名词性同位语：名词解释名词。（以下三种，第二个n.后可以跟修饰词）

N.,      n.;   

n.,      a/an + n.或a/an + n., n.;     
the + n., n.（前面的the + n 为同位结构）

内容具体化同位结构：抽象名词（theory/evidence/belief/principle）+that 从句，that从句对抽象名词进行具体化解释（注意与of 结构的区别），that从句部分才是同位语。(that是小品词，连词，和一般的名词性that分句中的that一样)

概括性同位语：用一个概括性的名词去概括前面的修饰对象：短语/句子，n. + that / doing / done…

5、前置修饰是GMAT 中最常见的名词性修饰，如:
Tired from chasing mice, the cat took a nap.
  由于平常在口语中很少使用前置修饰，gmat考试中喜欢在前置修饰中使用tricks。如用现在分词造成dangling modifier。

6、靠近原则：Touch Rule: 名词和其修饰语必须互相靠近，就近修饰（但动词修饰不用互相靠近）；如果修饰语靠近另外一个名词，则会产生误解。如:
Wrong：  Jim biked along an old dirt road to get tohis house, which cut through the woods.
Right：   To get to his house, Jim biked along an olddirt road, which cut through the woods.

▲PREP关于which修饰的解释：
Which指代小结—by aeoluseros：
以下收录官方材料中能对于which的使用，可以发现which的指代其实并没有固定死规则，不一定只指代最近的名词，跟所有代词一样，有就近指代的的倾向，但是具体修饰对象，应该根据各种线索或者逻辑含义来判断：
1. 尽管A of B的结构，which没有就近修饰。
561.    Onepervasive theory explains the introduction of breakfast cereals in the early1900s as a result of the growing number ofautomobiles, which led to a decline in horse ownership and a subsequentgrain glut; by persuading people to eat what had previously been horse feed,market equilibrium was restored.
2. which不一定跳过插入语指代：
462.    JudgeLois Forer’s study asks why some litigants have a preferred status over othersin the use of a public resource, the courts, which in theory are available toall but in fact are unequally distributed between rich and poor.
3. 通过单复数判断which的所指：
80.    Changesin sea level result not only from changesin water temperature, which affect waterdensity, but also from the melting of glaciers.
44.    Thesurvival of coral colonies, which are composed of innumerable tiny polypsliving in a symbiotic relationship with brilliantly colored algae, is beingthreatened, experts say, not only by pollutants such as agricultural runoff,oil slicks, and trash, but also by dropped anchors, probing divers, and globalwarming.
173 (GWD-10-Q18) In analyzing campaign expenditures,the media have focused on the high costs and low ethics of campaign finance,but they have generally overlooked the cost of actually administeringelections, which includes facilities, transport, printing, staffing, andtechnology.
205. (GWD-9-Q17) Unlike most other mergers in theutility industry, which have been driven by the need to save money and extendcompanies’ service areas, the merger of the nation’s leading gas company andleading electric company is intended to create a huge network for marketing theutilities in question as states open their utility markets to competition.
216. (GWD-13-1) Although she had been known as aneffective legislator first in the Texas Senate and later in the United StatesHouse of Representatives, Barbara Jordan did not become a nationally recognizedfigure until 1974, when she participated in the hearingson the impeachment of President Richard Nixon, whichwere televised nationwide.
4. 通过时态区别which的所指：
488.    Likethe government that came before it, which set new records for growth, the new government has madelaissez-faire capitalism its cornerstone.

Stoneren关于which指代的一个观点：
  OG10-114:From the bark of the paper birch tree the Menomini crafted a canoe about twentyfeet long and two feet wide, with smallribs and rails of cedar, which could carryfour persons or eight hundred pounds of baggageyet was so light that a person could easily portage it around impedingrapids.
当which的潜在指代对象是一个独立的主语结构或独立的宾语结构（▲上文manhattan中给的例句Jim biked along...就不属于独立的主语/宾语结构）时，且其指代对象的修饰成分比较简单，那么定语侧重于指代核心名词（在没有语法和逻辑问题的前提下）。

7、如果名词修饰所修饰的词不在句子里，即缺乏修饰对象，会造成Dangling Modifier。如：
  Wrong：  Resigned to the bad news,there was no commotion in the office.
  Wrong:  There was no commotion in the office, resigned to the bad news.
  Right:   Resigned to the bad news, the office workers made no commotion.

  Prep08的解释：
DANGLINGMODIFIER: When we begin a sentence with a modifying word, phrase, or clause, wemust make sure the next thing that comes along can, in fact, be modified bythat modifier. When a modifier improperly modifies something, it is called a"dangling modifier." This often happens with beginning participialphrases, making "dangling participles" an all too common phenomenon.In the sentence below, we can't have a car changing its own oil.
Confusion: Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, thecar seemed to run better.  
Repair Work: Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, Fredfound he could get much better gas mileage.
*:An infinitive phrase can also "dangle." The infinitive phrase belowshould probably modify the person(s) who set up the exercise program.
  Confusion: To keep the young recruitsinterested in getting in shape, an exercise program was set up for the summermonths.
RepairWork: To keep the young recruits interested in getting in shape, the coachingstaff set up an exercise program for the summer months.  

8、避免一系列的修饰语修饰同一个名词。将2个很长的修饰语同时放在名词前或名词后，容易造成笨拙和错误。▲故应该尽量把修饰对象夹在多个modifiers中间。如：
Wrong:   George Carlin, both shocking andentertaining audiences across the nation, who also struggled publicly with drugabuse, influenced and inspired a generation of comedians.▲错误：1）主谓分离太远；2）modifers位置不平衡。
▲Better： Both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, GeorgeCarlin, who also struggled publicly with drug abuse, influenced and inspired ageneration of comedians. ▲较优：1）主谓仍然分离太远；2）modifiers位置已经纠正。
Best:    Both shocking and entertaining audiencesacross the nation, George Carlin influenced and inspired a generation ofcomedians, even as he struggled publicly with drug abuse.▲最优：1）主谓尽可能靠近；2）modifiers分两边。

9、注意所有格。所有格形式经常会出现修饰错误。▲跟在A's B后面的modifier修饰的是B，不能修饰A。如：
  Wrong：  Unskilled in complex math,Bill’s score on the exam was poor.
这个句子中，不应该是Bill’s score unskilled。而应该是Bill.
  Wrong:  Only in the past century has origami’s development, a ceremonial activity invented millennia ago, into atrue art form taken place.
  在这个句子中，development会被误认为是a ceremonial activity（▲a ceremonial activity修饰development），而句子意思是origami是a ceremonialactivity。

10、关系代词引导名词修饰，关系代词有：which、that、who、whose、whom、where、when。
Who和whom修饰人，who修饰主语，whom修饰谓语▲（这里whom应该是修饰宾语）。which修饰物。
在gmat里that是不能修饰人的，whose可以修饰人和物。如：the town whose water supply was contaminated.
which和whom有时跟在介词之后。如，throughwhich，for whom。

That和whom在做宾语时可省略。（▲貌似有反例，OG12-50的D选项解释：“D.The recession must be followed by that.”。有能解释这个特例的筒子吗？~~求助~"）
where指代具体地点，In which 指代虚拟地点（▲如：condition, situation, case, circumstances,arrangement, etc)。
when 可以修饰一个名词时间或时间，period、age、1987。也可以用in which修饰相同对象。

11、限制性名词修饰：无逗号隔开的，用that; 是essential的信息。
非限制性名词修饰：有逗号隔开的，用which；是Non-essential的信息。
▲非限定性名词修饰——将两个逗号中间内容去掉不影响句意完整性。
▲MANHATTAN原文提示：that和which在限制性/非限制性名词修饰中的选择具有争议性，所以这个选择不是绝对的。“However, the GMAT has acknowledged that this which/that differentiation is controversial,so theGMAT is unlikely to make this distinction the make-or-break issue for anyanswer choice.”

12、动词修饰（▲Verb Modifiers）是修饰动词的，信息包括“how”“where”“why”等。最基本的动词修饰是副词，其它的修饰与副词形式相同。

Type/first word	位置	Example
副词	动词前 动词后	FREQUENTLY, I walk to the store. I FREQUENTLY walk to the store.
介词	动词前 动词后	ON Monday, I walk to the store. I walk to the store on Mondays.
从句	动词前 动词后	WHEN my car is broken, I walk to the store. I walk to the store when my car is broken.

从属结构用because，although，if，unless，while，so that，while，so on修饰。这些词引导从句，必须依附于一个句子，不能单独为一个句子。

13、有些动词修饰（▲Verb Modifiers）既修饰▲动词又修饰动词的主语，这时候必须要保证主语和修饰词有意义。▲即：保证结构上对应的修饰对象n.正是修饰词的主体
如：

Type/first  word	位置	Example
现在分词加逗号	动词前 动词后	WHISTLING “beat it”, I lifted  the weight. I lifted  the weight, whistling “beat it”.
介词+简单动名词	动词前 动词后	By concentrating, I lifted  the weight. I lifted  the weight by concentrating.
表目的的不定式	动词前 动词后	TO Free me leg, I lifted  the weight. I lifted  the weight to free my leg.

14、动词修饰比名词修饰相比要更“随意”一些，因为名词修饰必须紧跟被修饰的名词。而动词修饰可以被放在任何位置，以便修饰正确的动词而没有歧义。

15、which VS -ing
1、Which紧跟其修饰的名词，不能修饰一个句子。▲which修饰对象必须在上文出现过。
【注意！】根据上面引用的08版PREP-210解释，修饰对象在独立主语/独立宾语结构中可以不用紧邻，而根据逻辑含义判断。

2、ing
形式做修饰语比which要灵活得多：
（1）做形容词，直接修饰名词
（2）可以修饰主语和动词▲如：I lifted the weight, whistling.
（3）可以修饰一个从句（此时主句若转化为同意名词，这个名词可作为ing的主语），这种形式就是常见的ing 表示结果状语的结构。）▲例OG12-71：
The cameras of the Voyager II spacecraft detected six small,previously unseen moons circling Uranus, whichdoubles to twelve the number of satellites now known as orbiting thedistant planet.
(A)    which doubles to twelve the number ofsatellites now known as orbiting
(B)    doubling to twelve the number of satellites nowknown to orbit
(C)    which doubles to twelve the number ofsatellites now known in orbit around
(D)    doubling to twelve the number of satellites nowknown as orbiting
(E)    which doubles to twelve the number ofsatellites now known that orbit
key：B

（4）ing 形式在主系表结构中，可以修饰其前面紧跟的名词
（5）ing 形式在主谓宾结构之后，（▲不作为结果状语修饰整个主谓宾结构时）可以表示与谓语动词同时发生，表伴随状语，此时其逻辑主语就是主句的主语。


【Chapter 7】（第7章比较多，分两次整理，先上一半）

1. GMAT对动词的主要考查方向：
（1）时态Verb Tense（常考多个动词的时态选择）
（2）动词语气Verb Mood：

陈述语气Indicative Mood：用于描述知识（knowledge）、观点（beliefs）

虚拟语气Subjunctive Mood：用于表达建议（suggestions）、愿望（desires）、假设事件（hypothetical      events）

（3）主被动Verb Voice：分为主动（Active Voice）和被动（Passive Voice）

2. 一般时态Simple Tenses
                                

一般现在时simple present	表示一般情况（general   rule）,而不是正在发生的动作。   Sandy PLAYS well with her friends.（可能是平时经常play）
一般过去时simple past	Sandy   PLAYED well with her friends yesterday.
一般将来时simple future	Sandy   WILL PLAY well with her friends tomorrow.

3. 进行时态Progressive  Tenses

过去进行时

将来进行时

现在进行时：

（1）表示正在发生的动作（happening right now）

不管句子中是否有right now这样表示“现在”含义的词,应该从实际情况出发；

强调正在进行的动作。

（2）不能表示一般情况（general definitions）：
Cherenkov radiation is light that particles ARE EMITTING when they ARE TRAVELING faster than the effective speed of light in any medium.错
（应该用一般现在时表示一般情况）
Cherenkov radiation is light that particles EMIT when they TRAVEL faster than the effective speed of light in any medium.对
（3）不能表示将来动作（future actions）：
Quentin IS MEETING Harvey for lunch tomorrow.错
Quentin WILL MEET Harvey for lunch tomorrow.对
（4）状态动词（State Verb, 又称静态动词，如know/ signify）没有进行时：
This inscription IS SIGNIFYING the emperor's birth.错
This inscription SIGNIFYS the emperor's birth.对

4. 保持动词时态一致：
（1）除非句意要求，否则尽量保持同一句子中and连接的多个动词时态一致。
如：She WALKED to school in the morning and RAN home in the afternoon.
   WALKS                                                               RUNS
WILL WALK                                                       (WILL) RUN     

（2）需要改变时态的情况：

上下文逻辑意思要求（如先后因果关系等）：

如：He  IS  thinner now because he SPEND the last six months on a strict diet.   

一个动词用过去进行时表示“背景”事件（background event），另一个动词用一般过去时表示“前景（foreground）”事件。（逻辑上后一个动作是句意的重心，前一个动作只是交代一下后一个动作发生时的背景。）

如：She WAS PLAYING with her friends when the babysitter ARRIVED.
（3）时态一致总结（抓抓自己的理解）
and的一般连接作用：V1 + and + V2----没有特殊强调先后关系的情况下----V1和V2都用一般时态
when的“神奇”连接作用：

V1 + when + V2----当V2的时候、开始V1----V1和V2都用一般时态  

V1-ing + when + V2----当V2的时候、同时进行V1（V1 V2同时发生）----V1进行时，V2一般时态

5. 完成时：现在完成时（效果持续至今的动作）
（1）现在完成时=HAVE/HAS + 过去分词
时间轴：过去某个时间|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->|现在|
|----->未完成的动作的持续期/已完成的动作效果的持续期--------|----->|
（注：LZ按照自己的理解，在这里多加了一个截止符号，表示现在以后不知道动作是否还会持续，因为如果一直持续而且还会持续下去的话，应该用have been doing）

（2）动作or动作的效果从过去开始持续到现在（one foot in the past and one foot in the present）
（3）现在完成时vs一般过去式对比：
We HAVE LIVED in a hut for 3 days.（现在还在hut里）
We LIVED in a hut for 3 days.（现在已经不在hut里了）
（4）用法总结：现在完成时——过去的动作持续到现在/过去的动作（已经完成）的影响持续到现在

Since/for/within表示过去一段时间里的动作（延续到现在）时要用现在完成时

过去具体时间点（如in 1970）用一般过去式

不加时间直接用现在完成时，强调现在的状态。例：Veronica has      traveled all over the world.

在同一句话中和另一个动作（v-ing/动词不定时/从句）共同使用时用现在完成时，表示比另一个动作更早发生。

She WILL PAY you when you ASK her.表示pay和ask两个动作都在将来同一时间发生。
She WILL PAY you  when you HAVE TAKEN out the garbage.表示PAY在将来TAKE发生之后才发生。
6. 完成时：过去完成时（比过去更早的动作）
（1）过去完成时=HAD + 过去分词
时间轴：过去早些的某个时间------------------------->过去晚些的某个时间----------------------->现在
     （过去完成时）                                                  （一般过去时）

（2）发生在过去一个动作V1（later past action）之前的更早的动作V2用过去完成时。
（3）不能在没有过去的动作V1（later past action）的情况下单独在句子中使用过去完成时。
（4）过去两个动作先后发生不一定要对过去先发生的使用过去完成时，必须在【句意上强调动作之间的先后关系时】才用。

当先后顺序很明显的时候（动词由and/or/but连接的时候），常常不需要使用过去完成时。
Antonio DROVE to the store and BOUGHT some ice cream.

结构上已有and连接两个动作，意思上也没有体现【强调动作先后顺序的需要】。

同一个主体的两个先后动作不需要用过去完成时。Laura LOCKED the deadbolt before she LEFT for work.句中已经有before表达出动作先后关系（而且足够强调说明该顺序），所以都只需要一般过去时。

最后还有一种很容易判断错误的情况：根据句意需要，有时过去更早发生的动作V1反而可以用一般过去时，过去晚些发生的动作V2反而可以用过去完成时。
The band U2 WAS just one of many new groups on the rock music scene
in the early 1980's, but less than ten years later, U2 HADfully ECLIPSED
its early rivals in the pantheon of popular music.对
V1仅仅是描述过去一个动作，只是时间恰好在V2之前，句意上并不强调V1和V2的先后顺序；
V2强调该动作的持续效果，所以时间上虽然在V2之后，但反而用过去完成时。（重要！！）

============================LZ在这里举一个OG上的例子，欢迎讨论和指导！====================

句意判断时态的典型例题：OG12-74
74. A 1972 agreement between Canada and the United
States reduced the amount of phosphates that
municipalities had been allowed to dump into the
Great Lakes.
(A) reduced the amount of phosphates that
municipalities had been allowed to dump
(B) reduced the phosphate amount that
municipalities had been dumping
(C) reduces the phosphate amount municipalities
have been allowed to dump
(D) reduced the amount of phosphates that
municipalities are allowed to dump
(E) reduces the amount of phosphates allowed for
dumping by municipalities
选D。
LZ在和MARS童鞋讨论的过程中对此题纠结过，第一个reduced用过去时可以通过OG解释很快理解：
“An agreement that occurred in 1972 is correctly described with the past tense verb reduced. ”但是第二个are当时不是很理解，按照之前的同一个句子中的时态要一致的理解，LZ一度认为主句和从句、一个句子内没有先后顺序的时候应该保持完全一致，认为这题中必须要用reduced...were allowed...或者reduces… are allowed...才说得通。看了这部分MANHATTAN的解释之后忽然想明白了：
时态判断不一定要根据时间状语，而应该根据全句的语义。
第一个reduce，题干中没有时间状语明确修饰reduce，1972修饰的是agreement，但是意思上提示了协议是1972年的，故我们更能肯定它的约束效应发生在1972；也有可能持续到现在，但是不能保证，所以选reduced优于reduces。这里是不是绝对的correctiveness的问题，而是句意上的倾向性。
接下来的矛盾出现了：为什么同样的原理，第二个动词be allowed to也是agreement的约束效应的描述，可是却选了are？而且还在解释中说：
“Since the dumping continued after the date of the
agreement, the past perfect verb had been allowed
should instead be the present are allowed (if the
agreement remained in eff  ect when the sentence
was written) or the past were allowed (if the
agreement was no longer in eff  ect when the
sentence was written).”
这不是和前一个动词reduce的选择思路矛盾了吗？
其实不是。这里选择are allowed to只是因为选项中没有were allowed to的情况下，OG的无奈之举。
“Since were allowed does not appear in any of the options, we can assume that the correct verb tense is are allowed. ”这涉及到优先级的问题，LZ的理解是，如果选项有reduced… were allowed to，那么这个就比原题的答案更优，更应该选它。
===========================================================7.13修改更新完毕================================================

(Chapter 7 未完待续)




【Chapter 8】Comparison比较
1、判断比较正误的基本步骤:
（1）找比较标志词(signal words)：like, unlike, more than, less than, faster than, differentfrom, in contrast to/with, as, as+adj+as, as much as, as little as, as fast as,the same as。其中，like、unlike和than是罪重要的三个标志词。
（2）找比较对象。
（3）判断比较对象是否在语法结构上和逻辑意思上严格平行。

2、Like & as的区别：
（1）like为介词，不是连词，不能连接句子、不能跟介词短语，只能跟名词、动名词、代词、名词性短语（这点MANHATTAN没有举例，我自己查了些例子，如a feast for theeyes ，the rat race，etc）
（2）as既可以作介词、也可以作连词，可以连接句子和介词短语。
如：LIKE her brother did错，AS her brotherdid对。
3、比较的平行：
（1）比较必须在逻辑意思上平行，即比较的二者必须具有可比性。
如：Frank's build, LIKE his brother, is broad and muscular.错
Frank's build, LIKE that ofhis brother, is broad andmuscular.对
Beethoven'smusic, which broke a numberof established rules with its structure and melodic form, is considered MORErevolutionary THAN Bach.错
Beethoven'smusic, which broke a numberof established rules with its structure and melodic form, is considered MORErevolutionary THAN Bach's.对
（2）比较必须在语法结构上也平行。
如：I like to run through forests more than I enjoy walking throughcrowds.错
I like runningthrough forests MORE THAN walkingthrough crowds.
4、比较中的省略——在比较的第二部分可以省略部分内容
（1）物主名词后（相同内容）可以省略。如：My car is bigger than Brian's (car).
（2）可以省略数量单位、动词、甚至是句子。
如：Whereas I drink 2 quarts of milk a day, my friend drinks 3 (quarts).
I walk faster than Brian (walks).
I walk as fast now as (I walked) when I was younger.
（3）只有在省略会造成歧义的情况下，才必须加入助动词（如be, do, have）。
如：I like cheese more than Yvette.错，Yvette可以理解成like的动作主体，也可以理解成like的对象。
I like cheese more than Yvette DOES.对
I like cheese more than I DO Yvette.对
在GMAT中，助动词能省则省，但是能省略的时候不省略助动词不算语法错误，不能根据这一点排除错误选项。
5、比较级和最高级
（1）比较两个对象的时候用比较级，比较两个以上对象的时候用最高级。
（2）只有句子中有用than的比较的时候才能用比较级。
（3）比较级必须用than（而不能用over）。
如：I will have HIGHER bills OVER last year.错
I will have HIGHER bills THAN last year.对

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