成本计算法

第一段：过去的企业生产产品少，成本计算容易，而现在企业产品种类很多，旧的计算法就显得过时了。

第二段：举例（考举例作用题）有两家造笔厂，A生产蓝色笔；B生产蓝、粉色、绿三种同样数量的笔10000只。B属于劳动分工，所以cost高些，用旧的成本计算法，B的单位成本高于A，但实际上两家企业生产一支蓝笔的cost是一样的。

第三段：B成本高卖得贵，A就相对有优势。结果B卖不过A，于是降价、profit低，最后停产，不得不去生产其他成本更高的颜色的笔，最后造成额外的负担。

主旨：旧的成本计算法过时，要用新的。举例：用两家造笔厂来说明了旧的过时了。

题目：

1、
in order to，问举这个造笔厂的例子的作用是啥？说明这种成本计算法的不足和缺陷。

2、
如果用实际成本actual cost来定价，则这些笔的profit变化怎样？

选项有：1.蓝笔会获得less profit，2.粉笔会获得less profit，3，所有笔都会获得less profit，4，所有笔的profit都不变。（注意cost、定价和profit三者关系的部分）

版权问题

第一段说，大部分的copyright集中于mega-company，它垄断了distribution networks，使得一些小众的东东不能出现在市面上。市场被同化，都是些大片等主流的东西，人们不能接触到小众的idea.

第二段说，这个copyright system有intrinsic缺陷。关于property. 对比了tune和chair, 说more access to a tune不会降低其效用，但是physical item比如chair，用的人多了，则会降低效用。

第三段接着第二段的chair 和tune, 继续解释。artist创作往往是要借鉴他人的东西，而借鉴多少算侵犯别人的copyright很难界定。所以copyright system会阻碍艺术的发展......最后说，现在的copyright system是不合理的。

This development, however, has a major downside: companies owning massive amounts of copyrighted works can, at their whim, ban weaker cultural activities – not only from the marketplace, but also from the general audience's attention. This is happening under our very eyes. It is nigh接近 impossible to ignore the blockbuster了不起的人 movies, bestselling books and top–chart records presented to us by these cultural molochs, who, incidentally, own almost every imaginable right to these works. As a result, most people are completely unaware of all those other, less commercialized activities taking place in music, literature, cinema, theater and other arts. This is a tremendous巨大的 loss to society, because our democratic民主的，大众的 world can only truly thrive on a large diversity of freely expressed and discussed cultural expressions.

Contrary to what one might expect, the seemingly endless possibilities of copying and sampling using modern digital technologies have so far only aggravated the situation. Publicly offering even a mere second's worth of copyrighted work will almost certainly attract attention from lawyers on behalf of the "owners" of said material.Sound artists, who used to freely sample work from others to build new musical creations, are now treated as pirates and criminals. Whole copyright enforcement industries have emerged, scouting侦查 the digital universe day and night for even the smallest snippet片段 of copyrighted work used by others – and those found out, often stand to lose literally everything they have.Copyright has yet another intrinsic本质的
fault which makes it difficult to maintain in a democratic society. Copyright nowadays revolves almost exclusively around so–called intellectual property. This is a problem, since the traditional notion of property is largely irreconcilable with intangible concepts such as knowledge and creativity; a tune, an idea or an invention will not lose any of its value or usefulness when it is shared among any number of people. In contrast, a single physical object, such as a chair, quickly becomes less useful when more people want access to it; in this latter case, the term "property" has a clear meaning and purpose. Unfortunately, in the past decades the legal definition of property has been extended way beyond any physical constraints. These days, almost anything can be someone's property, such as fragrances香味 and colors; even the makeup of the proteins in our blood and the genes in our body cells are being claimed as the exclusive property of one company or another, which can subsequently bar anyone else from using it. It is therefore high time to reconsider the current concept of property.

With regard to artistic works, it is quite conceivable that no single person should have the right to claim exclusive ownership over, say, a particular tune. We all know that almost every work of art, and every invention, is based upon the work of predecessors. Now this doesn't mean we should have less respect for artists creating new works of art based on the work of others, and we're obliged to contribute to artists' well–being and income in our society. Yet rewarding their every single achievement, or reproduction or even interpretation thereof, with a monopoly垄断 lasting many decades, is too much, because it leaves nothing for other artists to build on. In fact, even criticizing the artist's work can become rather hazardous, as it "damages" his "property". Unpleasant as this may sound, things get even worse when we consider that the vast majority of copyrighted works is owned by a relatively small group of large conglomerates. These mega–industries create, invent or produce nothing at all, yet demand that artists sign over all rights to their works to them, just for the privilege of having their works distributed.

From this point of view, there is ample足够的 reason to send our current system of copyright to the scrapheap废物堆. Artists will of course feel threatened by such a bold move. After all, without copyright, they will lose all means of existence, now won't they? Well, not necessarily. Let's first look at some numbers. Research by economists shows that only 10 percent of artists collect 90 percent of copyright proceeds收入, and that the remaining 90 percent of artists must share the remaining 10 percent of proceeds. In other words: for the vast majority of artists, copyright has only marginal微薄的 financial advantages. Then there's another peculiar罕见的 fact: most artists have entered into some sort of covenant契约 with the cultural industry – as if these two groups have even remotely similar interests! For example GEMA, the German copyright organization, sends approximately 70 percent of copyright proceeds abroad, mostly to the US, where several of the world's biggest cultural conglomerates企业集团 reside. In this process, the average artist is nowhere to be seen.

题目：

1、
主旨题。
大公司对copyright的垄断阻碍了音乐的发展。批system of copyright是有问题的

2、
举例中tune（无形资产intangible）的特点是：不会因使用变useless，对chair取非。（注意椅子处的细节）will not lose any of its value or usefulness

3、
改善题：under which circumstance will the international copyright system be less likely to hinder。。。如何使得international copyright system不再阻碍音乐发展：

对international copyright system缺点取非（第一段）more commercialized activities
freely expressed and discussed cultural expressions

4、
（重要！）问垄断公司（mega-company）导致了什么结果？ no diversity、no invention
（第一段）
create, invent or produce nothing at all
不能接触到小众idea

5、
举的例子中tune和chair区别是？（和2相像，读的时候注意二者的对比）

a tune, an idea or an invention will not lose any of its value or usefulness when it is shared among any number of people. In contrast, a single physical object, such as a chair, quickly becomes less useful when more people want access to it

6、
以下哪种情况，比较符合作者的想法？选项是：1、让艺术的创作者拥有版权；2、不让版权掌握在少数company手里
（待定）----我推断：作者反对版权集中到少数人是手里了，不应设版权。

7、
现行版权制度撤销将怎么样？（同6题）

企业文化multicultural multinational

公司的multinational和multicultural multinational.全文主要意思是说，multinational的advantage在于reduce cost，而multicultural可以聚集local knowledge in different divisions。

说现在很多企业都是multinational，然后解释了一下，multinational的意思就是说，企业在一个nation建一个总部，其他分部的建立只是为了能够找到更便宜的worker。

但有些企业在考虑转化为multicultural multinational，multicultural multinational的意思是说，每个地方的分部都是有其地方特色的，要听取每个地方的员工的建议，而不像multinational那样过度中央集权。但它的劣势显然就是成本太高了，因为要有地方特色的嘛。解决成本太高的问题是可以通过建立world standard来解决。

最后说所以现在很多企业都面临这这样一个controversy problem, 绝大多数只能做到其中的一点，而做不到两者。

题目：问controversy problem高亮，问的是你infer可以怎么解决这个controversy problem

我选的是实行multicultural multinational但不使用world standard。

第一段：M-M策略融入本地culture比standard globalization好。全球化中企业方式有二：multinational统一管理采用 standard的策略好处在于能减小costs（有题），但culture融合有问题；M-M策略好处是采取各division中本土员工的knowledge。

第二段：M-M也有不足之处：costs高，效率efficient低。然后，又来一种形式，管理好，效率高成本还低。（待定？）最后， culture和cost二者鱼与熊掌contradiction（考）的，很少公司能二者兼顾。

主旨：全球化，要注意culture融合的问题，采用M-M虽好可costs高效率低，能兼顾最好

     跨国公司：成本低，有一个总部，统一管理采用standard策略

跨文化跨国企业：成本高，效率低，但是有地方特色，采用world standard策略

题目：

1、
采用M-M策略的公司会干嘛？
采纳各division中本土员工的knowledge（注意确定是“本土员工”还是 “本土公司”）

2、
没有采用M-M战略的公司会同意以下哪个（standard globalization好处是）？
成本低
（costs）

3、
改善题：用M-M的公司如何解决这个contradiction？采取一种降低成本但不是standard globalization的策略

考古

第一段主要讲了global technology，由于一些跨国公司的存在和国际贸易的推荐，各种技术在全球范围内得到交流。然后交流的形式包括，然后就有了四个列举，一个是technology的investment，一个是什么的licensing，一个是corporation between不同的公司还是国家

第二段就是讲现在出现了一种趋势还是什么就是technology的national,出现这种的原因是国家还是企业把technology当成是一种非常重要的资源，然后说这个是符合一个outdated的theory把什么resources，human resources之类的东西当成是一种competitive advantage。然后又说保证technology的national就是保证这种competitive advantage的存在。但是第二段最后又提出由于一般比较advanced technology都需要corporation，意思就是说global的合作的感觉。

第三段：相当于是综合了两个观点一样，首先说企业还是应当保持一种national的technology来保证这样的一种competitive advantage，然后又同时说有时候还是应该加强国际之间的合作global technology。

题目：

1、global的technology是有什么表现，except题：political alliance between countries

2、作者对于那个观点（就是提出competitive advantage的那个观点）的看法：原文用的形容词是outdated ,Antiquated，我想了一下就是选了个评价那个观点过时之类的选项。

3、如果为什么要保持经济全球化，应该是第二段的定位题，我当时时间很紧，E选项是重视什么国际和国内市场，其他的选项不是很记得了。

建筑技术

第一段：夏威夷（Hawaii）上的temple的一个什么特征（待定？）让科学家相信社会历史文化变化比之前预想要快。（有题）

第二段：实验证明。用同位素元素示踪法，研究建寺庙时用的珊瑚（coral），发现和他们设想的是相符合的(consistent)（有题）
证实了他们的猜想。

主旨：通过同位素法对建筑temple用的coral的研究，证明历史文化的变化比预想的快。

题目：

1、
主旨题。（作者支持）

2、
新观点：历史文化变化预想的要快，新观点提出处有题。

3、
实验证明了什么结果有题。新的数据与原来的设想是相符合的，证明了猜想。

4、
问珊瑚的用处是？
做装饰品用。（因为文中有Ornamentally）

5、
问到文中最后一句话
”happen in the span of a single generation of Hawaiians” 是为了什么？证明那个（变革还是什么）很快

6、
问哪个问题文章没有提到？选项有“确定建造时间用的什么技术方法”，“珊瑚在建temple中的一种可能用途”楼主选了“为什么说那个时代是religious的”

背景知识

Hawaiian temples to the gods of agriculture and war — monumental platforms and terraces made of boulders卵石 composed of cooled lava岩浆 — provide tangible archaeological evidence for this transition from chiefdoms酋长 to archaic states

The dates for the temple-building boom come from the ages of small branching corals called “cauliflower corals,” found in the temples. The exact symbolic value of temple corals to the Hawaiians — archived in the memories of oral historians — was probably lost when European diseases decimated大批杀害 the population at the end of the 18th century. The corals themselves were not objects of veneration尊敬，崇拜, according to Kirch; rather, they may have served as symbolic offerings, like votive candles in a Catholic church.

The base of this branch coral from a Kahikinui archaeological site has been dated to the year 1601, plus or minus seven years. The tip has been dated to 1608 with the same margin of error. The preservation of the specimen indicates that living coral was collected from the sea bottom.

The researchers are confident that coral ages provide temple ages. Delicate精美的 surface structures on temple corals indicate that these corals were collected live and brought almost immediately to the temples. If the corals were collected dead from the beach, these tiny surface structures would be damaged or absent.

The kinds of corals found in the temple pull uranium铀 from the seawater into their skeletons.骨架 Over time, the uranium inside coral skeletons naturally decays to lead in several steps, and one of the intermediate products is the element thorium钍. Sharp estimated the ages of temple corals by measuring the concentrations of thorium versus uranium present in the coral skeletons.

This temple-dating approach is an improvement over carbon-14 dating techniques that have been used to estimate the age of charcoal remains of pig bones and other organic materials found at the temples. Dating these charcoals requires scientists to take atmospheric carbon-14 fluctuations into account, which increases the uncertainty of temple construction dates considerably. In contrast, coral age estimates are not influenced by changes in the carbon-14 content of the atmosphere through time.

Sharp dated the outer tips of the corals to get as close as possible to the “death date” — the date someone harvested the coral from the ocean and brought it to a temple construction site or temple dedication ceremony.

The surprising swiftness of the transition in ancient Hawaiian society, revealed by the new temple construction dates, raises the possibility that similar transitions elsewhere in the world may have been equally abrupt, the authors say.

Pihanakalani heiau in Wailuku, Maui, one of the oldest Hawaiian temples on the island, is believed to have been built in the 13th century. but using modern radiocarbon-dating techniques, anthropologist Michael Kolb of Northern Illinois University said he has determined the ancient temple was erected建立 in the early 13th century, at the start of a 500-year span of heiau construction that peaked during times of great political and social change.（通过碳检测得知古神坛是早于13世纪修建的，且在政治和社会改变的时候达到高峰。）

Pilana: His research indicates the temple was renovated重修 at least seven times, a common practice as new chiefs came into power. Oftentimes they wouldn't build new ones, but go in and modify and adds wings to existing temples.（每当新得酋长到来，就重新修饰）

Kirch: many major Hawaiian temples on Maui were built within a 30-year span coinciding with Pi'ilani's rise to power.

Most of the coral samples used in Kirch's research were taken from the surface of heiau and may not reflect the period of original construction, Kolb said, since materials were recycled during subsequent alterations. （珊瑚来自神坛的外表用于装饰，不能真正反应建筑时间）

In response, Kirch said that his research did not claim that no heiau were built before the late 1500s and 1600s, but rather that the period was a rapid phase of temple construction, which he said is in "good agreement" with Kolb's findings.政权交替和temple的重建，用珊瑚同位素可以证明

原文Freedom for traffic

An unassuming Dutch traffic engineer showed that streets without signs can be safer than roads cluttered被塞满 with arrows箭头, painted lines, and lights. And Monderman certainly changed the landscape in the provincial city of Drachten, with the project that, in 2001, made his name. At the town center, in a crowded four-way intersection十字路口 called the Laweiplein, Monderman removed not only the traffic lights but virtually every other traffic control. Instead of a space cluttered with poles, lights, “traffic islands,” and restrictive arrows, Monderman installed a radical kind of roundabout环状交叉路口 (a “squareabout,” in his words, because it really seemed more a town square than a traditional roundabout), marked only by a raised circle of grass in the middle, several fountains喷泉, and some very discreet谨慎的 indicators of the direction of traffic没有被移走, which were required by law.

      这一段说的是M自己闭上眼睛，倒走到他设计的路中间，结果并没有像在普通道路上一样——所有的车刹车再启动，而是车辆依然有序行驶。

As I watched the intricate复杂的 social ballet that occurred as cars and bikes slowed to enter the circle (pedestrians行人 were meant to cross at crosswalks placed a bit before the intersection), Monderman performed a favorite trick. He walked, backward and with eyes closed, into the Laweiplein. The traffic made its way around him. No one honked按喇叭, he wasn’t struck. Instead of a binary二进制, mechanistic process—stop, go—the movement of traffic and pedestrians in the circle felt human and organic.

实验一年后的结果：拥挤减少、事故减少

A year after the change, the results of this “extreme makeover” were striking: Not only had congestion decreased in the intersection—buses spent less time waiting to get through, for example—but there were half as many accidents, even though total car traffic was up by a third.（对应题目：1问公交车怎么样的2改革给D这个地方带来了什么影响）
Students from a local engineering college who studied the intersection reported that both drivers and, unusually, cyclists were using signals—of the electronic or hand variety—more often. They also found, in surveys, that residents, despite the measurable increase in safety, perceived感觉到 the place to be more dangerous. This was music to Monderman’s ears. If they had not felt less secure, he said, he “would have changed it immediately.”

Monderman believed that the best way to change people’s behavior was to change the context. （出题点：改变了人的观念）This simple insight was one of the foundations of his traffic revolution, which took root a decade before he remade Drachten.：（他说在实施这个理论前必须做好多准备工作
学习了N多东西（有题） In the mid-1980s,
Monderman, then a regional safety inspector for Friesland, was dispatched派遣 to the small village of Oudehaske to check the speed of car traffic through the town’s center (two children had been fatally致命的 struck). Previously, Monderman, like any good Dutch traffic engineer, would have deployed部署, if not an actual traffic light, the tools of what is known as “traffic calming”: speed bumps, warning signs, bollards, or any number of highly visible interventions.（交代了背景：作为交通安全官员，M被发配到一个小村里去检测城镇中心的车速。按常理，控制车速的手段不外乎装红绿灯、减速带等）

但是M觉得在这个town，既没有必要也太贵。But those solutions were falling out of favor with his superiors, because they were either ineffective or too expensive. At a loss, Monderman suggested to the villagers, who as it happens had hired a consultant to help improve the town’s aesthetics, that Oudehaske simply be made to seem more “villagelike.” The interventions were subtle. （正评价，嘿嘿）Signs were removed标示被移走了, curbs torn out, and the asphalt沥青 replaced with red paving brick, with two gray “gutters” 水槽on either side that were slightly curved but usable by cars. As Monderman noted, the road looked only five meters wide, “but had all the possibilities of six.”

The results were striking. Without bumps or flashing warning signs, drivers slowed,（出题：M在两地措施的共同之处） so much so that Monderman’s radar gun couldn’t even register their speeds. 通过这种改进（把town改造的更villagelike,车速都自然降低了，雷达都检测不到……好夸张啊-。-）Rather than clarity and segregation, he had created confusion and ambiguity.（出题，这两个的目的：M的总目的）
注意这段：因为他的方法制造了一种错觉，司机8知道哪条是他该走的路，所以开车不会很莽撞Unsure of what space belonged to them, drivers became more accommodating.（两处措施的相同点） Rather than give drivers a simple behavioral mandate—say, a speed limit sign or a speed bump—he had, through the new road design, subtly suggested the proper course of action. And he did something else. He used context to change behavior.用观念改变行为（两地措施相同点） He had made the main road look like a narrow lane in a village, not simply a traffic-way through some anonymous town.

主旨：M设计师去掉红绿灯这一创新，增加了人们对潜在危险和不明确的意识，而变得更加谨慎，降低了交通事故率。

题目：

1、
改变对D市交通的公交bus产生的影响？（bus）等待通过的时间变少了、公交车开的更快了（答案不一致，待定？）

JJ中提到的在第一个城市中实施的一系列措施对城市有什么改善（选项有:
A. make the moving traffic quicker
B. reduce the number or the severity of the accidents

2、
对比：D市和O市做的改变不同之处？ O市改得更彻底，比D市还少了交通灯（？待定，具体设备考场确定）其实两个地方的措施是不一样的。第一个城市是在一个中心建立roundabout island，第二个是说把道路建的更加village like。

3、
对比：D市和O市做的改变的相同之处？没有交通警示牌，司机反而开的慢了（考场确认吧，变体！）选项：A说remove the traffic lights， B说都不装traffic signal ，CD貌似都在说以提高车速为目的，E的意思是说造成了两个地方的行人和车辆都具有了主观能动性，不仅仅是被动接。-----我的推测 E更靠谱
只有一点是相同的，就是这个人设计的理念。He used context to change behavior.（用观念改变行为)

4、
第三段提到confusion and ambiguous作用？  M人创新的目的，概括了M思想风格（确定）原文：the foundations of his traffic revolution
选指出M的总风格

5、
第三段：“关键是改变大家的concept of time”这句话有题。（我推测和3题是同一题）

6、
高亮：第三段的作用是？
解释