标题: 6月GMAT阅读新题——个人更新版 [打印本页]
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:40 标题: 6月GMAT阅读新题——个人更新版
阅读小犬
人文科学类... 1
1．1．1 成本控制法... 1
1.1.2 copyright
1
1.1.3 企业文化... 2
1.1.4建筑技术... 2
1.1.5 改善交通理论... 3
1．1．6 专利保护法... 4
1.1.7 书店... 4
1.1.8 外包服务... 5
1.1.9 女性受男性影响... 5
1．2．1 boater
6
1.2.2 预测未来... 6
1.2.3 日本经济... 6
1.2.4 P药与心脏病关系... 6
自然科学类... 7
2．1．1生物进化理论... 7
2．1．2 玻璃... 7
V2 by 沫澧 700. 7
2.1.3 地震前鸟行为... 8
2.1.4 气温上升... 8
2.1.5特殊植物... 8
2.1.6 Concrete. 9
2.1.7 生物种群的多样性... 9
2.1.8 农作物... 10
2.1.9 热带气温下降... 10
2.2.4
伽利略………………………………………………………………………………..10
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:41
人文科学类
1．1．1 成本控制法
V1 by tracy175
第一篇 目前就想起一片 介绍一个成本控制法,貌似说了它的不足之处. 第二段开始,举例:两家造笔厂 生产相同数量的笔 ,一家全生产蓝笔 ,一家分别生产蓝 红 绿(貌似吧)三种颜色的笔 然后他们的成本不同. 最后说了一下不同的原因.
题目有in order to题 有问你举出造笔厂这个例子是干啥的
还有一些细节题
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:41
1.1.2 copyright
V1 by tracy175
第二篇 是讲版权的问题 copyright
有关maga company注重歌手的版权问题 为了控制市场 但这样会有碍文化的多元吧 具体的内容不记得了
考到了主旨题
V2 by jessicaxia
copyright system
第一段说，大部分的copyright集中于mega-company，它垄断了distribution networks，使得一些小众的东东不能出现在市面上。市场被同化，都是些大片等主流的东西，人们不能接触到小众的idea.
第二段说，这个copyright system有intrinsic缺陷。关于property. 对比了tune和chair, 说more access to a tune不会降低其效用，但是physical item比如chair，用的人多了，则会降低效用。
第三段接着第二段的chair 和tune, 继续解释。artist创作往往是要借鉴他人的东西，而借鉴多少算侵犯别人的copyright很难界定。所以copyright system会阻碍艺术的发展......最后说，现在的copyright system是不合理的。
考题：
1）under which circumstance will the international copyright system be less likely to hinder。。。
2）关于tune的，以下哪种说法正确？lz选的答案貌似是和效用有关的，就是把chair的特点反过来说
3）问mega-company导致了什么？lz选的答案好像与小众idea有关
4）主旨题
阅读材料：感谢cgzjessieli 分数740
This development, however, has a major downside: companies owning massive amounts of copyrighted works can, at their whim, ban weaker cultural activities – not only from the marketplace, but also from the general audience's attention. This is happening under our very eyes. It is nigh impossible to ignore the blockbuster movies, bestselling books and top–chart records presented to us by these cultural molochs, who, incidentally, own almost every imaginable right to these works. As a result, most people are completely unaware of all those other, less commercialized activities taking place in music, literature, cinema, theater and other arts. This is a tremendous loss to society, because our democratic world can only truly thrive on a large diversity of freely expressed and discussed cultural expressions.
Contrary to what one might expect, the seemingly endless possibilities of copying and sampling using modern digital technologies have so far only aggravated the situation. Publicly offering even a mere second's worth of copyrighted work will almost certainly attract attention from lawyers on behalf of the "owners" of said material. Sound artists, who used to freely sample work from others to build new musical creations, are now treated as pirates and criminals. Whole copyright enforcement industries have emerged, scouting the digital universe day and night for even the smallest snippet of copyrighted work used by others – and those found out, often stand to lose literally everything they have.Copyright has yet another intrinsic fault which makes it difficult to maintain in a democratic society. Copyright nowadays revolves almost exclusively around so–called intellectual property. This is a problem, since the traditional notion of property is largely irreconcilable with intangible concepts such as knowledge and creativity; a tune, an idea or an invention will not lose any of its value or usefulness when it is shared among any number of people. In contrast, a single physical object, such as a chair, quickly becomes less useful when more people want access to it; in this latter case, the term "property" has a clear meaning and purpose. Unfortunately, in the past decades the legal definition of property has been extended way beyond any physical constraints. These days, almost anything can be someone's property, such as fragrances and colors; even the makeup of the proteins in our blood and the genes in our body cells are being claimed as the exclusive property of one company or another, which can subsequently bar anyone else from using it. It is therefore high time to reconsider the current concept of property.
With regard to artistic works, it is quite conceivable that no single person should have the right to claim exclusive ownership over, say, a particular tune. We all know that almost every work of art, and every invention, is based upon the work of predecessors. Now this doesn't mean we should have less respect for artists creating new works of art based on the work of others, and we're obliged to contribute to artists' well–being and income in our society. Yet rewarding their every single achievement, or reproduction or even interpretation thereof, with a monopoly lasting many decades, is too much, because it leaves nothing for other artists to build on. In fact, even criticizing the artist's work can become rather hazardous, as it "damages" his "property". Unpleasant as this may sound, things get even worse when we consider that the vast majority of copyrighted works is owned by a relatively small group of large conglomerates. These mega–industries create, invent or produce nothing at all, yet demand that artists sign over all rights to their works to them, just for the privilege of having their works distributed.
From this point of view, there is ample reason to send our current system of copyright to the scrapheap. Artists will of course feel threatened by such a bold move. After all, without copyright, they will lose all means of existence, now won't they? Well, not necessarily. Let's first look at some numbers. Research by economists shows that only 10 percent of artists collect 90 percent of copyright proceeds, and that the remaining 90 percent of artists must share the remaining 10 percent of proceeds. In other words: for the vast majority of artists, copyright has only marginal financial advantages. Then there's another peculiar fact: most artists have entered into some sort of covenant with the cultural industry – as if these two groups have even remotely similar interests! For example GEMA, the German copyright organization, sends approximately 70 percent of copyright proceeds abroad, mostly to the US, where several of the world's biggest cultural conglomerates reside. In this process, the average artist is nowhere to be seen.
http://www.alreves.org/repertorium.php?cod_repertorium=4&lang=en
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:41
1.1.3 企业文化
V1 by tracy175
有关企业的 mutilnation mutliculture 以及 globalizaion 也忘了差不多了。。。
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:42
1.1.4建筑技术
V1 老张1119
一个新老观点对比题 结构蛮清晰的
第一段是说Hawii的temple还是啥的一个什么特征让科学家相信它们是比之前认为的建造的更快还是什么的（有题）
第二段是说科学家通过新的一种技术研究珊瑚还是啥的来验证他们的想法 然后说这些新的数据他们原来的设想的是相符合的(consistent)（有题） 证实了他们的猜想
V2 by cc1990 740
第二篇是说一个岛上有寺庙，科学家用元素追踪技术研究建寺庙时用的珊瑚，发现这个岛上的一段时间内社会历史文化变化比之前预想要快。题目有主旨，还有问珊瑚的用处，应该是装饰品，因为文中有Ornamentally.
阅读材料：感谢cgzjessieli 分数740 这篇很清楚，建议看这篇
Hawaiian temples to the gods of agriculture and war — monumental platforms and terraces made of boulders composed of cooled lava — provide tangible archaeological evidence for this transition from chiefdoms to archaic states
The dates for the temple-building boom come from the ages of small branching corals called “cauliflower corals,” found in the temples. The exact symbolic value of temple corals to the Hawaiians — archived in the memories of oral historians — was probably lost when European diseases decimated the population at the end of the 18th century. The corals themselves were not objects of veneration, according to Kirch; rather, they may have served as symbolic offerings, like votive candles in a Catholic church.
The base of this branch coral from a Kahikinui archaeological site has been dated to the year 1601, plus or minus seven years. The tip has been dated to 1608 with the same margin of error. The preservation of the specimen indicates that living coral was collected from the sea bottom.
The researchers are confident that coral ages provide temple ages. Delicate surface structures on temple corals indicate that these corals were collected live and brought almost immediately to the temples. If the corals were collected dead from the beach, these tiny surface structures would be damaged or absent.
The kinds of corals found in the temple pull uranium from the seawater into their skeletons. Over time, the uranium inside coral skeletons naturally decays to lead in several steps, and one of the intermediate products is the element thorium.Sharp estimated the ages of temple corals by measuring the concentrations of thorium versus uranium present in the coral skeletons.
This temple-dating approach is an improvement over carbon-14 dating techniques that have been used to estimate the age of charcoal remains of pig bones and other organic materials found at the temples. Dating these charcoals requires scientists to take atmospheric carbon-14 fluctuations into account, which increases the uncertainty of temple construction dates considerably. In contrast, coral age estimates are not influenced by changes in the carbon-14 content of the atmosphere through time.
Sharp dated the outer tips of the corals to get as close as possible to the “death date” — the date someone harvested the coral from the ocean and brought it to a temple construction site or temple dedication ceremony.
The surprising swiftness of the transition in ancient Hawaiian society, revealed by the new temple construction dates, raises the possibility that similar transitions elsewhere in the world may have been equally abrupt, the authors say. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6792 ... tale-social-change/
———————————————————————————————————————
Pihanakalani heiau in Wailuku, Maui, one of the oldest Hawaiian temples on the island, is believed to have been built in the 13th century. but using modern radiocarbon-dating techniques, anthropologist Michael Kolb of Northern Illinois University said he has determined the ancient temple was erected in the early 13th century, at the start of a 500-year span of heiau construction that peaked during times of great political and social change.
Pilana:His research indicates the temple was renovated at least seven times, a common practice as new chiefs came into power.Oftentimes they wouldn't build new ones, but go in and modify and adds wings to existing temples.每当新得酋长到来，就重新修饰
Kirch :many major Hawaiian temples on Maui were built within a 30-year span coinciding with Pi'ilani's rise to power.
Most of the coral samples used in Kirch's research were taken from the surface of heiau and may not reflect the period of original construction, Kolb said, since materials were recycled during subsequent alterations. 珊瑚来自外表，不能真正反应建筑时间
In response, Kirch said that his research did not claim that no heiau were built before the late 1500s and 1600s, but rather that the period was a rapid phase of temple construction, which he said is in "good agreement" with Kolb's findings.
政权交替和temple的重建，用珊瑚同位素可以证明
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:55
1.1.5 改善交通理论
V1 by 老张1119
是说一个叫什么Modesman的人提出一个改善某地交通的理论
第一段是说他通过这个理论而走红 他好像是把这个地区的所有交通灯还是什么的都remove了 然后一年后大家惊讶的发现这个地区的交通变好了 公交车什么的可以开的更快了（有题）
第二段是说他说在实施这个理论前必须做好多准备工作 学习了N多东西（有题） （这一段后面的东西失忆了）
第三段是作者观点 说他虽然改善了交通 但是这同时he creates the confusion and ambigious， 因为这样一来这个地区路好像就变得不像大城市里的路了 变窄了还是啥的 然后就变得很乡土好像==
问题具体怎么问的忘了 好像回文章定位就行
V2 by cc1990 740
第一篇是说一个人M，用新的方法解决城市交通问题，就是不用严格的红绿灯之类的，装了一些乱七八糟的东西后…反而公交车等待通过的时间少了(有考题，问公交车怎么样的)，虽然交通数量上升但不堵。M用的方法是改变人们对时间的观念。最后一段是说这个人M又在另一个地方实验，让这个地方更villagelike，最后也是成功的。题目不是很记得了。。但不难。
V3 by tonality 740
M这个人去到德国一个什么城市，在原来十字路口的地方改建，traffic light好像没有完全去掉，用discreet形容的，留下了一些法规规定不能去掉的指示吧。（这里有和他在下一个城市的比较，另个城市好像把指示灯都去掉了吧，这个没有完全去掉）后来，那个人又去了德国的O这个地方。说关键在于改变什么的Time的观念。这里有题的。
V4 by lesezeichen 680
一篇是讲一个M因为他的2001project出名了，为什么呢？因为他在一个D城市做了一个治理交通的措施，把信号灯之类的都拿掉了，结果效果很好，在交通增长的情况下，这里的交通却很好，bus可以很容易通过（有考点），事故也少。到这里分别是第一段和第二段。第三段就说了他又在另外一个城市做了project，也柏油路弄成石块路之类的，总之就是相比那些明确的交通信号信息，他的改造让这个城市变得village like，有了confusion和ambuguity（有考点，问提到这两个是要干嘛）。然后M就说，要改变交通，就要改变交通的context，改变大家的concept of time（这里面的逻辑关系大家要再仔细读哈，不过不重要）。大概如此了
V5 by jsmart
traffic的，三段，M改进了traffic，使交通变好了，然后好像他自己又发现问题了……记得一题是M和另一个O观点相同之处，有一个选项是都说交通枢纽不放交通灯 想起来再补充…
材料：感谢freewer提供，太牛了！必须是原文！
Freedom for traffic
An unassuming Dutch traffic engineer showed that streets without signs can be safer than roads cluttered with arrows, painted lines, and lights.
And Monderman certainly changed the landscape in the provincial city of Drachten, with the project that, in 2001, made his name. At the town center, in a crowded four-way intersection called the Laweiplein, Monderman removed not only the traffic lights but virtually every other traffic control. Instead of a space cluttered with poles, lights, “traffic islands,” and restrictive arrows, Monderman installed a radical kind of roundabout (a “squareabout,” in his words, because it really seemed more a town square than a traditional roundabout), marked only by a raised circle of grass in the middle, several fountains, and some very discreet indicators of the direction of traffic, which were required by law.
这一段说的是M自己闭上眼睛，倒走到他设计的路中间，结果并没有像在普通道路上一样——所有的车刹车再启动，而是车辆依然有序行驶。As I watched the intricate social ballet that occurred as cars and bikes slowed to enter the circle (pedestrians were meant to cross at crosswalks placed a bit before the intersection), Monderman performed a favorite trick. He walked, backward and with eyes closed, into the Laweiplein. The traffic made its way around him. No one honked, he wasn’t struck. Instead of a binary, mechanistic process—stop, go—the movement of traffic and pedestrians in the circle felt human and organic.
实验一年后的结果：拥挤减少、事故减少A year after the change, the results of this “extreme makeover” were striking: Not only had congestion decreased in the intersection—buses spent less time waiting to get through, for example—but there were half as many accidents, even though total car traffic was up by a third. Students from a local engineering college who studied the intersection reported that both drivers and, unusually, cyclists were using signals—of the electronic or hand variety—more often. They also found, in surveys, that residents, despite the measurable increase in safety, perceived the place to be more dangerous. This was music to Monderman’s ears. If they had not felt less secure, he said, he “would have changed it immediately.”
Monderman believed that the best way to change people’s behavior was to change the context. This simple insight was one of the foundations of his traffic revolution, which took root a decade before he remade Drachten. In the mid-1980s, Monderman, then a regional safety inspector for Friesland, was dispatched to the small village of Oudehaske to check the speed of car traffic through the town’s center (two children had been fatally struck). Previously, Monderman, like any good Dutch traffic engineer, would have deployed, if not an actual traffic light, the tools of what is known as “traffic calming”: speed bumps, warning signs, bollards, or any number of highly visible interventions.（交代了背景：作为交通安全官员，M被发配到一个小村里去检测城镇中心的车速。按常理，控制车速的手段不外乎装红绿灯、减速带等）
但是M觉得在这个town，既没有必要也太贵。But those solutions were falling out of favor with his superiors, because they were either ineffective or too expensive. At a loss, Monderman suggested to the villagers, who as it happens had hired a consultant to help improve the town’s aesthetics, that Oudehaske simply be made to seem more “villagelike.” The interventions were subtle. （正评价，嘿嘿）Signs were removed, curbs torn out, and the asphalt replaced with red paving brick, with two gray “gutters” on either side that were slightly curved but usable by cars. As Monderman noted, the road looked only five meters wide, “but had all the possibilities of six.”
The results were striking. Without bumps or flashing warning signs, drivers slowed, so much so that Monderman’s radar gun couldn’t even register their speeds. 通过这种改进（把town改造的更villagelike,车速都自然降低了，雷达都检测不到……好夸张啊-。-）Rather than clarity and segregation, he had created confusion and ambiguity. 注意这段：因为他的方法制造了一种错觉，司机8知道哪条是他该走的路，所以开车不会很莽撞Unsure of what space belonged to them, drivers became more accommodating. Rather than give drivers a simple behavioral mandate—say, a speed limit sign or a speed bump—he had, through the new road design, subtly suggested the proper course of action. And he did something else. He used context to change behavior.用观念改变行为 He had made the main road look like a narrow lane in a village, not simply a traffic-way through some anonymous town.
图片：感谢“我系大P”大人
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:56
感谢fargone 提供
我总结了一下，这个理论主要说的就是去掉行驶线、交通信号灯等交通规则的“提示物”，激发人们的自觉地自我约束行为，这样的交通管理效果更好。
Shared space is an urban design concept aimed at integrated use of public spaces.
Shared space removes the traditional segregation of motor vehicles, pedestrians and other road users. Conventional road priority management systems and devices such as kerbs, lines, signs and signals are replaced with an integrated, people-oriented understanding of public space, such that walking, cycling, shopping and driving cars become integrated activities.
History
The term 'shared space' was used by Tim Pharoah to describe informal street layouts with no traffic demarcation (see for example "Traffic Calming Guidelines" published by Devon County Council, 1991). The shared space concept has been associated strongly with the work of Hans Monderman, based on the observation that individuals' behaviour intraffic is more positively affected by the built environment of the public space than it is by conventional traffic control devices and regulations.
The goal of shared space is an improvement in road safety, encouraging negotiation of shared areas at appropriate speeds and with due consideration for the other users, using simple rules like giving way to the right. The term shared space should probably not be too closely defined, since there is wide scope for varying the design concept.
Safety, congestion, economic vitality and community severance can be effectively tackled in streets and other public spaces if they are designed and managed to allow traffic to be fully integrated with other human activity, not separated from it. A major characteristic of a street designed to this philosophy is the absence of traditional road markings, signs, traffic signals and the distinction between "road" and "pavement". User behaviour becomes influenced and controlled by natural human interactions rather than by artificial regulation.
Monderman is quoted as saying: "We're losing our capacity for socially responsible behaviour, ...The greater the number of prescriptions, the more people's sense of personal responsibility dwindles." Another source attributes the following to Monderman: "When you don't exactly know who has right of way, you tend to seek eye contact with other road users... You automatically reduce your speed, you have contact with other people and you take greater care."
但是这个理论也有人质疑，主要两个原因：一是觉得残疾人不方便；二是很多骑车的人觉得不安全（这段太长我替大家概括一下哈）
Time, of course, is highly subjective. Traffic experts have long known thatpeople in traffic tend to feel they are making more progress at a slow, continuous clip than if, over the same distance, they wait at a long traffic light, then drive quickly to the next light. Traffic plays into what is known as “queue psychology”: We think waits are longer when we don’t know how long they will be, or when we are alone, for example. David Levinson, a researcher at the University of Minnesota, has found that drivers view waiting on the highway as less onerous than waiting for a “ramp meter” light to allow them to merge onto the highway.
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:56
1．1．6 专利保护法
V1 by周游ing
个关于专利保护法案的，就一个F法案通过了以后怎样怎样保护专利所有人，但是说这个法案不利于法官判，后来又有个什么T法案通过了，就先缩小了到法庭打官司的范围，然后judges就很高兴。（大致意思吧，里面比较绕）
V2 by cc1990 740
最后一篇是说美国1995年和2006年的两个关于trademark还是patent的保护法。问题有主旨，还有一个是问法官为什么比较喜欢其中一个法。文中有说到其中一个法更保守，能先剔除一些case，选项里也有这个。现在能想到的就先这些啦…要能再想到再补充~
我的材料：
词汇：Trademark 、patent、 conservative
商标
1、主旨题
2、法官为何喜欢修改过的法案，对于dilution的释义更明确
Federal Trademark Dilution Act of 1995
Trademark Dilution Revision Act of 2006 (TDRA)
Trademark dilution theory 商标稀释理论is one of the most contentious aspects of trademark law.Although Congress enacted the Federal Trademark Dilution Act (“FTDA”) in 1996, courts struggle to interpret the statutory language.The definition of dilution is unclear, and the appropriate standard for injunctive relief is hotly contested.激辩申请禁止侵权
Additionally, no uniform framework for litigating dilution claims exists.The Supreme Court’s 2003 edict on trademark dilution in Moseley v. V Secret Catalogue, Inc. did little to quell disputes because the Court only addressed the standard of harm necessary for injunctive relief.Recently, in response to the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the FTDA in Moseley, Congress proposed an overhaul of the trademark anti-dilution law.Presently, Congress appears close to enacting the Trademark Dilution Revision Act of 2006 (“TDRA”).
This note evaluates whether the proposed TDRA provides beneficial alternatives to the current definition of dilution, methodologies for analyzing claims, and standard of harm necessary for injunctive relief. Part I provides an overview of trademark law and historical highlights of trademark dilution, including the emergence of blurring and tarnishment theories. Part II investigates the inherent weaknesses of the FTDA definition of dilution, explores courts’various methodologies for analysis of dilution claims, and explains the interpretations of the standard of harm necessary for injunctive relief. Part III explains the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the FTDA and identifies statutory language changes made by the TDRA in the three areas of dilution law explored in Part II. Part IV discusses the prospective impact of the TDRA in the three areas highlighted in Part II. Part V concludes the TDRA effectively addresses the need for a clear definition of dilution and analytical framework, and presents a pragmatic standard for injunctive relief.
Until 2006, the FTDA was distinguished from most state trademark dilution laws in several ways: (1) The FTDA protects only "famous" trademarks; most state statutes do not explicitly require trademarks to be "famous" to be protected against dilution. (2) The FTDA, as interpreted by the Supreme Court, protected only against "actual" dilution of a trademark, whereas most state statutes provided trademark owners with a remedy whenever they could show a "likelihood" of dilution. (3) The Supreme Court suggested (although it did not have occasion to hold) that the FTDA protected only against dilution by "blurring" and not against dilution by "tarnishment" (see below).
Amendments to the FTDA took effect on October 6, 2006. The Act still protects only famous marks. However, Congress amended the act so that it expressly provides protection against a use of a mark that is "likely" to cause dilution. The new statute thus eliminates the requirement of proving "actual dilution."新的法案不要求提供actual dilution的证据，因此变得容易
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:57
1.1.7 书店
V1 by jsf22
第一道是说书店的。
第一段说book chain，但是放到全国，每个店仍要本地化什么的。
第二段说非连锁的书店，因为有本地化的各种优势。
V2 by jessiacacai 我觉得这个jj已经很好了，谢谢狗主人
chain store
第一段说，chain store的大量涌现使得independent store不能生存，减少了regional difference. 然而，chain store的发展是考虑regional因素的，比如geography,economy等等。举例，先是washington以及O打头的一个州，说这两个地方bookstore多是weather原因，rain多；然后说Alaska和Hawaii，地势偏远，进货难需要时间。然后又提到了Alaska和Hawaii的差别。
第二段说，independent store并没有完全消失，它们的经营策略是避免head-on冲突，到chain store少的地方经营，或者专注于special market. 书店不光卖书，还搞book signing等一系列活动。随着作者的national tour减少，这种在书店里的签名售书越来越普遍。
考题：
the passage suggests, at the time when it was written, which of the following is true？答案选项两个是关于W和O这两个州的，三个是throughout the United States. lz选的是national tour is decreasing.
我的材料：
可能和borders倒闭有关
题目：
1、主旨题
2、作者认为连锁书店XXXXX
3、地方书店的优势在于
Analysts say retail bookstore chains will cease to exist as we know them, underperforming stores will close and bookstore chains will be reduced to a few localized stores catering to specialized local needs.
Bookstore chains must reduce their retail footprints in order to survive, according to Wahlstorm. He said that there is a high likelihood that Barnes & Noble like Borders will close underperforming stores in coming years.
To stay relevant bookstore chains would have to use their store space productively and find a market niche, according to Bishop.
“They can try to drive traffic and sales through the physical stores by means like adding cafes, establishing relationships with the local community, and offering exclusive or targeted products (B&N is making a big push toward its new educational toys & games department),” wrote Wahlstrom.针对本地市场推出营销方案
Maybe bookstore chains have a lesson to learn from smaller independent book stores that have dodged the online and e-books bullets by keeping unique selections of books and providing social space to their local communities.地方的小书店和社区关系紧密
"Independent bookstores are very well connected to their communities. When you do that there will always be value for your bookstore,” said Lubeck. He said that bookstore chains should adopt this successful formula.
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:57
1.1.8 外包服务
V1 by jsf22
第一段说1980年之后，美国公司大量裁人，但单位生产率并未提升，产出并没有下降；分析了不是高科技运用提高了生产率，另有原因。
第二段说原因是大量业务外包，因为公司追求更少的人工成本，因为除了不用支付更多的工资，也不用支付那么多福利。同时公司做法并不违反劳工合同，因为skilled employee公司会继续留用。
有主旨题。还有问为什么要外包，选降低人工成本。还有问为什么说不违反劳工合同。不太确定记忆是否准确了。
我的材料：
背景：经济滞涨时期，企业采取外包，节约成本。但是，带来问题，但是不违反劳动合同。
Outsourcing is when one company sells a part of their company to another. This usually happens when the company wants to save money. 省钱Outsourcing was first mainly seen in the early 1980’s during a time of stagflation滞涨, or a time where economic growth is slow, unemployment rates and inflation is high. Foreign competition in trade had steady rates compared to the United States market and had a cost advantage over American goods. Car companies, which were suffering greatly during this time, took a radical step and moved about ten factories out of Michigan to Mexico (2,5).
This outraged the United Autoworkers Union (UAW) because American’s who worked in the factories that had been outsourced, were left jobless. UAW negotiated with the car companies to keep the outsourcing of the parts division to overseas countries (2).
The car factories use of outsourcing caught the eyes of other businesses: companies saw profit with the use of outsourcing. Soon after more and more companies began expand their companies in Mexico, on the Mexico-United states border. Many American citizens failed to notice the outsourcing that was beginning to happen on the United States-Canadian border. Outsourcing of filmmaking was a common in the 1990’s, but also to the manufacturing of parts. Canada’s trade with the United States began to increase and benefit, while American parts suppliers began to go bankrupt and lay off their workers (2).
This trend in outsourcing in the United States has been increasing steadily since its debut in the 1980’s, but now is being exposed to the average American. Common jobs, such as calculating worker’s payrolls, can be found in overseas companies, that provide cheaper labor, then it would cost if an American laborer worked for the company in the United States (1). Competition between companies is increasing, and companies that outsource have a great advantage over companies who only work within the United States territory. The cutting of jobs in American businesses is becoming increasingly common, leaving healthy, skilled, and knowledgeable people to suffer as they look for the few available jobs in their area. Companies take advantage of the cheap labor to allow their businesses to expand, which is the main reason that outsourcing continues to grow
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:57
1.1.9 女性受男性影响
V1 by jaejonng 710
有一篇是也很长，关于女性是否受男性影响的新老观点对比。
首段介绍老观点，受影响。然后介绍新观点不受影响。
观点绕的挺多。大家注意它举的例子。我考的题目几乎全是例子的细节题。
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:58
1．2．1 boater
V1 by doodle
一道是有关于boater的，说是有一个景点1985年的人比1975年的人多了很多，但是调查下来却发现旅游者并没有觉得很拥挤，然后举例分析了原因说是因为旅游者们的preference什么的有改变
材料：感谢fargone大人！完美匹配考古
Crowding and carrying capacity research has been dominated by cross-sectional studies. Researchers have modeled the impact of visitor use on the quality of the outdoor recreation experience by measuring social conditions (use levels and encounters with others), psychological conditions (evaluation of encounters and perceived crowding), and social psychological conditions (encounter expectations and preferences). From these measures, one can aggregate visitor responses into a normative standard for "appropriate" use levels that can help resource managers set visitor use policy.
his study incorporates time into an analysis of crowding and carrying capacity to investigate how change affects visitor evaluations and experiences. The analysis employed three cross-sectional surveys of boaters to the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore in Wisconsin匹配考古 over a 22-year period, beginning in 1975 and each administered approximately 10 years apart.
This framework assumed that perceived crowding is an expression of individual judgment and socially shared norms about "appropriate" density at a given site and at a given time.也就是说，挤不挤，感觉说了算 How crowded people feel depends, in part, on the expectations and preferences they bring to a recreation site. People may feel more crowded if they expect a low number of encounters but see more people than they expected. Moreover, based on these evaluative criteria, the individual may not feel crowded or evaluate the experience negatively until visitor encounters reach some threshold number.
This normative approach, however, is problematic in cross-sectional crowding frameworks because visitors may change over time. Time related issues of change were recognized in the early 1970s during the planning stages of early carrying capacity studies (Shelby & Heberlein, 1986). At the Grand Canyon, there were concerns that the study of current visitors could not truly assess carrying capacity because past visitors, who might be more sensitive, would have been displaced. It is possible that they could have left the Canyon because use levels had increased from 500 visitors a year in the mid 1960s to over 16,000 in 1972. The "last settler syndrome" (Nielson & Endo, 1977) or "uninitiated newcomer" phenomenon (West, 1981) suggests that some newcomers to an area may have weakly defined normative expectations and preferences about an area (Roggenbuck, Williams, Bange, & Dean, 1991) and therefore will define current conditions as normal. Thus, aggregate measures of norms may change because of shifts in visitor composition over time.
Norms may also change independently of visitor composition. Cole and Stewert (2002) used a diary sampling method among Grand Canyon backpackers, and found substantial variation in individual responses to normative evaluations when measured at different backcountry zones and at different times during their trip. The product shift phenomenon suggests that people can also change their minds about standards of appropriate use given changing personal and social contexts (Shelby et al, 1988; Shindler & Shelby, 1995). The norms that they hold may change over time, and hence a relationship between encounters and perceived crowding that holds at one point in time may not hold at a second point. So, collective evaluations may also change, even while visitor characteristics remain roughly the same over time. Even though use level may be increasing, aggregate crowding levels may shift depending on a variety of broad social factors that may change the way people define appropriate uses of a recreation site. The only way to observe the potential for change, either in visitor composition or in the normative standards of visitors, is to measure social conditions and visitor evaluations at a single site over time.
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:58
1.2.2 预测未来
V1 by doodle
预测未来的需求却往往导致不好的结果之类的
我的材料：
Demand forecasting is the activity of estimating the quantity of a product or service that consumers will purchase. Demand forecasting involves techniques including both informal methods, such as educated guesses, and quantitative methods, such as the use of historical sales data or current data from test markets. Demand forecasting may be used in making pricing decisions, in assessing future capacity requirements, or in making decisions on whether to enter a new market. 这个只有名词解释，具体的内容大家可以自己继续搜，熟悉一些词汇吧
原文
1.
T-7-Q23-Q25企业新产品开发对市场供求的影响Companies that must determine well
好卖的产品产量太少，难卖的产品
in advance of the selling season how
产量又太大。
many unites of a new product to manu-
Line facture often underproduce products
(5) that sell well and have overstocks of
others. The increased incidence in
这种供求矛盾似乎很讽刺，因为
recent years of mismatches between
消费者购买模式的数据趋于精确，
production and demand seems ironic,
弹性生产又允许小量商品的生产。
since point-of-sale scanners have
(10) improved data on consumers’ buying
patterns and since flexible manufacturing
has enabled companies to
24
produce, cost-effectively, small
quantities of goods. This type of
弹性生产导致美国每年新产品
(15) manufacturing has greatly increased
大量增加。但是频繁引入新产品
the number of new products introduced
有两个消极的副作用。
annually in the United States. However,
frequent introductions of new products
have two problematic side effects. For
一方面产品平均寿命缩短；它
(20) one, they reduce the average lifetime of
们既不处于初期（难以预计），
products; more of them are neither at the
也不处于末期（库存昂贵）。
beginning of their life (when prediction
is difficult) or at the end of their life
(when keeping inventory is expen-
(25) sive because the products will soon
become obsolete). For another, as
另一方面，随着新产品泛滥，
new products proliferate, demand is
需求在增加的库存单位内分配
divided among a growing number of
stock-keeping units (SKU’s). Even
虽然厂商和零售商有些把握预
(30) though manufacturers and retailers can
计准确的累积总需求，但他们
forecast aggregate demand with some
难以准确预计这些需求在众多
certainty, forecasting accurately how
库存单位内如何分配。
that demand will be distributed among
the many SKU’s they sell is difficult.
(35) For example, a company may be able
例如，一家公司可能可以准确
to estimate accurately the aggregate
估计鞋子总售量，但它不确定
number of shoes it will sell, but it may
哪种鞋子会卖更多，哪种鞋子
be uncertain about which specific
会卖更少。
types of shoes will sell more than
other types.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q23:
Which of the following most accurately describes the function of the last sentence in the
passage (lines 35-40)?
A. To cite a situation in which the aggregate demand is more important than the distribution of demand among SKU’s
B. To refute an assertion about the side effects of flexible manufacturing
C. To illustrate an assertion about companies’ ability to forecast demand
D. To provide an example of ways in which companies address the difficulties of
forecasting demand
E. To note an exception to the author’s assertion about distributing demand am-ong
SKU’s
Q24:
The passage suggests which of the following about divided demand among a growing
number of SKU’s?
A. It has increased the average lifetime of products.
B. It has resulted from retailer’s attempts to predict demand more accurately and
avoid both understocks and overstocks.
C. It has decreased the use of flexible manufacturing by companies.
D. It has not increased the expense of keeping inventory of certain products.
E. It has not prevented companies from predicting aggregate demand with some
certainty.
Q25:
According to the passage, which of the following has led to growth in the number of new products introduced in the United States each year?
- Reduced average lifetime of products
- Increased ability to forecast aggregate demand
- More cost-effective ways of keeping inventory for products
- Cost-effective production of small quantities of goods
- Increased ability to divide demand among a number of SKU’s and to forecast how that demand will be distributed among those SKU’s
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:59
1.2.3 日本经济
By lesezeichen 680
一篇是讲日本经济的，或者说是讨论日本的经济模式吧。说有人认为日本的发展，哦对了，这个文章是93年的文章，所以大概是说当时日本的飞速发展印证了一个理论，这个理论是说怎么样怎么样；然后有critic说非也，日本的发展不过就是assembly line。到这里是第二段了，所以可以大概知道有两种不同的理论，一个说日本的发展是有innovation的，一个就说不过是流水线之类的，这里面有很多词哟，比如pressure之类的，反正就是描述这种发展的性质。然后第三段，作者就说，其实应该是把这两种说法结合起来，就能概括日本这种发展了。
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:59
1.2.4 P药与心脏病关系
V1 by jessicacai
第一段说，一个关于Nurse的survey发现，那些服用P药的人比不服用的人患心脏病的几率小，从而推测说P药可以decrease患心脏病几率。但又一个survey发现，服用P药的人竟然连accident的几率都比不服用的人小，于是开始质疑原先的结论，因为很显然，吃药与降低事故的几率没关系。于是就继续做实验，结果证明P药会increase患心脏病的几率。
第二段，解释。服用P药的人对于健康比较关注，所以生活习惯各个方面都会注意保健，所以患病的几率小。然后做实验(记不得了，貌似有提到placebo),最后说，两个表面上有联系的事件可能是因为其他的原因而被联系在一起（主旨）
考题：
1）以下哪种情况与“服用原本增加患病几率的p药和患病几率减少”这个paradox最为相似？（这个表达是lz的理解，不是原来的表达）答案蛮好排除的
2）主旨题
3）nurse survey说明了什么？
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:59
自然科学类
2．1．1生物进化理论
V1 by 老张1119
说某种生物的进化吧好像 我只记得大体结构了 因为我两篇超长阅读之后发现第三篇还这么长就崩溃了
第一段是说这种生物的和水有关的一种能力 好像还和水生生物比较了一下
第二段是科学家提出的一个理论
第三段是科学家详尽的解释了这种理论 第三段很长 全段高亮…还高亮了两次…== 第一次好像是问下面哪一个strength了科学家的这种解释 第二次好像是infer题 问可以从这段里面得出什么
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 13:59
2．1．2 玻璃
V1 by 周游ing
一个是关于玻璃，说是什么什么原因玻璃易碎，然后人们就用一种烧制过程中控制温度的工艺增强玻璃，但是这个有什么不足，然后还有一种是像塑封一样，就是里面夹一层东西，但是也有不足，然后就又找非传统的玻璃原料，也有什么不足。。。
V2 by 沫澧 700
第一段说说艺术家和建筑师用玻璃来盖房子，但是这个conventional的玻璃作为建筑材料比较有问题，容易被一些粒子怎么怎么样，然后就容易断，然后又说，你你可以给玻璃建筑加个coat,但是这样就影响了建筑的透明度，而增加建筑透明度本身又是使用玻璃做建筑材料的一个主要目的
第二段说可以用一种方法增加牢固性，貌似是在玻璃外面加一种什么东西，然后利用两种材料冷却的速度差，在玻璃外面形成一层保护，就不容易断了
第三段说这样还不够，如果一块玻璃断了一整个房子就塌了，要用一种塑料的还是橡胶的材料把玻璃一块块连接起来，这样就算一块断了，整个建筑也能保持稳定。但是这样也有问题（是什么问题我忘了）
第四段说（还有第四段！！！是有多长） 还有一种方法，就是在玻璃里加什么东西。。。。忘记了额
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:00
2.1.3 地震前鸟行为
V1 by 周游ing
是关于地震前鸟的一场行为，说一个地方老人发现一种鸟大群的从海岸飞到内陆，觉得奇怪，因为不是气候变化的时候（有题），后来就地震了；其他一些地方也有类似的现象。人们就觉得是鸟能感知到地震最初造成的轻微动，但是后来说不对，那样的话鸟就应该逃到海上，因为海上伤害比内陆小，然后别的地方也都有这样的跟鸟有关的现象。（有个题问各地有什么共同点，lz就选了都和鸟有关，因为其他的都很不相关。）
我的材料：是一些跟动物地震预报相关的基础知识，当作背景配合jj来看就好
The weather is influenced by factors such as solar activity, globe rotation, warming of the land masses and oceans, and the orbits of the Sun, Moon and planets.
As humans, we consider ourselves to be the most intelligent species on the planet - however, through the refining of our natural behaviours and through the process of our education and ‘advancements’ we have actually lost many (or most) of our basic instincts.
Animals, birds, insects and plant life have a far greater ability to sense and interpret weather changes and signs than humans, and this is linked to their natural survival instincts.
Birds are closer to nature than humans and therefore more sensitive to invisible energies. Their physical actions express approaching prevailing energy – such as earthquakes – before even the most psychic human is aware of it.
If a bird or flock of birds acts strangely, you may be able to deduce that they ‘know’ something that you do not about changes in the weather or an impeding natural event or disaster.
Animals and birds react to signs in many different ways and their irregular behaviour and reactions can predict future significant changes in the weather. Science is yet to determine exactly How animals know what’s to come. Is it a rise or fall in atmospheric pressure; a reaction to the electromagnetic forces generated by sunspots; or even changes in the levels of humidity? Or, is it a combination of these factors, or something entirely different altogether? Whatever the triggers may be, they have an effect on the natural world around us.
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:00
2.1.4 气温上升
V1 by jsf22
说冰河期之后全球各部分温度上升的情况。
第一段说认为冰河期后各部分温度变化不一致，两极高纬度好像变化比较小，有个科学家通过研究海底的东西支持这个观点。
第二段新观点说另外的科学家从陆地提取的样本发现全球各部分温度变化差不多，最后又有一个科学家通过检查样本中的化学成分支持了新观点。
有主旨题。
我的材料：
暂时没有搜到啊，建议大家看看OG12中关于ICE age的文章，有助于熟悉词汇。
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:00
2.1.5特殊植物
V1 by cc1990
是说印度生物学家发现的一个现象，虽然很多人认为Unbelievable，但最后还是被证实了。就一种植物能模仿真菌，吸引小虫来授粉。第二段是详细介绍这种怎么植物模仿。最后一段是说也有一些其他植物也这样，共同特点有odor,color,texture之类的。问题只记得一个了。。就是文章从哪些角度写那种特殊植物的。应该选color和texture，因为第二段就是从这两方面写的。
V2 by doodle
有关于一种植物如何通过动物来传授花粉
我的材料：
词汇：pollination授粉 mimicry 模仿 entice 诱使 怂恿
（感谢CC1990提供jj和文章）
Pollination study comes up with new insights
Dipannita Das, TNN, Nov 5, 2010, 01.43am IST
PUNE: Did you know that inflorescence can deceive its pollinators (beetles and bees) by mimicking an egg-laying site through a nauseating gaseous stench. With this deception, the plants achieve pollination without actually providing any reward to the insects.
This observation was made in Amorphophallus species(tuberous herbaceous plants), commonly known as corpse flower or elephant foot yam belonging to the Arum family in the northern parts of the Western Ghats and Konkan region, by scientists Sachin A Punekar and K P N Kumaranof the Agharkar Research Institute here. This work is a kind of first from the Indian subcontinent addressing the pollen morphology and pollination ecology of these species.
Another aspect found in a large number of these species is the process of heating. The spadix (a type of inflorescence) produces 30-45 degree Celsius heat during at least the first night, when flowers become susceptible and pollinators are attracted to it.
The research paper was published this year in Elsevier research journal Flora Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants and has been recently cited under the top 25 hottest articles under the environmental science theme.The present study, using scanning electron microscope, delves adequately on this topic. It can be utilised as an important tool to distinguish taxa (group of organism) and also to resolve taxonomic problems, Punekar said.
The inflorescence form的形态 and shape形状 plays a significant role in attracting insects. Amorphophallus have a very strong and obnoxious odour臭味. The odour of each species has a characteristic chemical composition, Punekar said. In many species, the odour is a nauseating gaseous stench. This odour attracts pollinator insects that breed or feed on dung, decaying matter or fungi. 授粉动物会被恶臭吸引，因为他们都是“吃屎长大的”，囧-。-This also results in pollinators meeting their sexual partners and completing their reproductive cycle, he said.
The study observes five phases of insect trapping in Amorphophallus species, which facilitate pollination.
The initial phase of attracting beetles from a distance is possibly based on a visual trap resulting from the inflorescence size and form and the frequency of the plant in a particular area. In the second phase, beetles get attracted from a distance by the odour trap, where the appendix emits a stench. In the third phase, most of the insects fall to the bottom of the spathe via a slippery trap provided by the wet appendix.
During the fourth phase of pollination, the insects, attracted by a food trap, crawl over the pistillate zoneand staminate zone. Here, the visual attraction act as baits.
In the last phase, the trapped insects get shelter from light inside the kettle and meet sexual partners, achieving copulation and sometimes lay their eggs.
（文章2，看不看都可以，重点看上一篇）
In a number of flowering plants, especially orchids, a plant uses mimicry to entice the insect pollinator to visit the flower and successfully pollinate it with no reward of food to the pollinating insect.
Many flowers that are dark red or red-purple produce a scent that is similar to the scent of rotting flesh. In this case, the pollinator visits the flower believing that there is a meal or a carcass on which to lay its eggs. Female blowflies will land on these flowers, lay their eggs, and in the process of moving about the flower inadvertently pollinate it. However, when the eggs hatch the maggots die, as there is no rotting flesh to eat. In other cases the duped pollinator lands on the flower and moves around the flower and inadvertently pollinates the flower while trying to find the rotting flesh to eat.
Besides the need to eat, pollinators need to mate in order to produce the next generation and ensure the continuation of the species. Many orchids take advantage of this innate behavior to reproduce.
The warty hammer orchid of Western Australia produces a chemical scent that is almost identical to the pheromone that the female thynnine wasp releases when she is sexually receptive. The orchid's labellum (lower lip) is also shaped similarly to the body of the female wasp. The male thynnine wasp grasps the imitation female and tries to fly off with her to mate and in the process crashes into the flower structure containing the pollen and the stigma. Pollen from one orchid is carried to another and pollination occurs. The male thynnine wasp's desire to mate as many times as possible lends to this trait of pollinating the warty hammer orchid.
Some plants take advantage of the sex drive of specific insects. The Copper Beard Orchid has a floral structure and scent that mimics the female scoliid wasp. The male wasp attempts to mate with the flower (pseudocopulation) and in doing so provides the pollination service as they travel from one orchid to another attempting to mate with other "female wasps."
源文档 <http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers ... egies/mimicry.shtml>
In order for the Hammer orchid to be successfully pollinated, the male wasp must be fooled by another individual orchid, where it goes through the same procedure. But this time the pollen is deposited in the stigma, and so that plant has been pollinated.
源文档 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drakaea>
铁锤兰 铁锤兰的颜色和味道就像是生肉，它是一种生长于澳大利亚的植物，这类植物的特点在于一个窄窄的铰接茎干上均长着似昆虫的唇瓣和一个有翼柱壮物携带花粉和柱头 。铁锤兰的授粉方式十分独特，它会把自己装扮成雌性黄蜂的模样，勾引雄性黄蜂过来交配。
在《PLoS Biology》学报上刊登的最新研究成果指出，全球授粉动物多样性的破坏会威胁植物群落的可持续发展。
由于每隔16年就有一次动物灭绝危机，因此动物多样性的丧失对于生态系统的扰动程度还不能确定。植物是地球的初级生产者，而扮演植物再生重要角色的授粉动物越来越受到重视。这种植物——授粉动物的互利关系十分特殊，一个物种的消失甚至会威胁到别的物种的存在。Colin Fontaine等人通过自然条件下对植物和授粉动物相互关系的实验，发现全球授粉动物多样性的破坏会威胁植物群落的可持续发展。
研究人员用了不同的植物（全开的花和未全开放的花）和口器长短不同的昆虫（食蚜蝇和大黄蜂）进行实验。授粉动物选择了各自适合的植物：食蚜蝇选择的大都是全开的花朵，蜜蜂选择的大都是未全开放的花朵。蜜蜂也可以在全开的花上授粉，但是只要有未全开放的花朵，它们就会放弃全开的花。授粉者的出现，会使授粉更高效，使植物再生更成功。当实验减少授粉动物种类时，发现物种的丧失会影响植物——授粉动物群落，进而最终触发生物多样性危机，并通过食物链反映出来。
大约有70%的植物依靠动物授粉，而至少有82种哺乳动物授粉者和103种鸟类授粉者已经灭绝或者濒临灭绝，这是亟需重视的问题。
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:01
2.1.6 Concrete
V1 by jaejonng 710
第一段介绍concrete的作用，处理方法（这里有题，原文改写）
第二段说细菌对concrete应该有好的影响，但是细菌的存货时间很短，只有几天，所以其实是没有用的。
然后有个J做了一个实验，证明细菌对concrete还是有用的，因为数量猛增，而且其实可以活的很长，几个月甚至几年。
接下去又对J的实验部分否定，提出了另一个approach（很短，属于延伸部分），说在吧细菌加到concrete之前可以先做一个处理，这里有类比题，问这个处理和选项的哪个相似。
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:01
2.1.7 生物种群的多样性（我觉得这两个jj不是一篇文章的，囧）
V1 by沫澧 700
对比死水和活水里生物种群的多样性(这篇很坑爹。。。这篇生物专业术语特别多) 说活水和死水里生物种群的多样性是不一样的，但是为什么捏
第二段说在活水里可能是因为物种繁殖的速度决定了这个物种是否能存活，繁殖速度足够快（我猜是说不能在还没生出一堆小宝宝之前就被悲催的冲走了），才能在活水里存活下来。如果这是唯一的原因的话，死水里的种群多样性应该高于活水，但是捏，你懂得，没有这么简单。。。科学家们又发现，一些死水里的种群还不如活水多，介个又是为什么捏~ 第三段来鸟~~
第三段科学家又说，这可能是因为死水里捕食者predator多，使得死水里生物种类少。而活水里捕食者少，各种群之间主要为了争夺有限的资源而发生矛盾，限制了他们的数量
V2 by jessiacacai
关于ecosystem，很长的一段。
很难确定在ecosystem的管理中怎么做才是合适的，比如是否应该用species diversity作为indicator of a healthy system. 一贯认为，越diverse越好，但是也存在一些其他情况。举了个例子，某E做的研究，说一个pristine的环境是low diverse，而另一个环境加入了exotic species而增加了diversity.
考题：
E的研究说明了什么？lz选的答案是low diversity好
我的材料：（配图一张，是另一份材料的）
Natural aquatic habitats include ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, springs, estuaries, bays, and various types of wetlands. Some of these habitats are shallow and others deep, some are cold-water and others warm-water, some are freshwater and others saltwater, and some have high oxygen levels and others little oxygen.
Aquatic habitats can be classified as:
• non-flowing waters like lakes and ponds,
• slowly-flowing waters like marshes and swamps, and
• flowing waters like rivers and streams.
Aquatic ecosystems consist of living organisms together with their nonliving habitat. Although the ecosystem concept is a useful one, the exact definition is somewhat arbitrary. For example, an ecosystem can range in size from a small water droplet to the vast oceanic ecosystem, and the upper, lower, and horizontal boundaries are often not well established.
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:01
2.1.8 农作物
By lesezeichen 680
篇说农作物的，但是我不懂那个单词我就不误导了，总之很长的文章，好几段。一段先说了这个p开头的单词的作物（也许是野生植物，或者说多年生，因为是和crop和annualy做比较的）和普通我们种植的作物的区别，大概就是不需要施肥也不会遭虫子之类的。第二段就说了一下我们老祖宗是怎么慢慢开始农作物耕种的，大概是解释为什么有的就变成了我们的水稻玉米之类的，有的就还是野生的没人要的吧，嗨~，然后后面第三段，或者甚至第四段就开始讲了各种原理，总之就是再说这种p植物可以被种植的feasibility吧。
我的材料：
我觉得这篇文章讲的可能是植物驯化Corp domestication，待验证。
（以下是两种被驯化的P植物，待确认）
Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is also known as common millet, hog millet or white millet. Both the wild ancestor and the location of domestication of proso millet are unknown, but it first appears as a crop in both Transcaucasia and China about 7,000 years ago, suggesting that it may have been domesticated independently in each area. It is still extensively cultivated in India, Russia, Ukraine, the Middle East, Turkey and Romania. In the United States, proso is mainly grown for birdseed. It is sold as health food and due to its lack of gluten it can be included in the diets of people who cannot tolerate wheat.
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is the most widely grown type of millet. Grown in Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times, it is generally accepted that pearl millet originated in Africa and was subsequently introduced into India. The earliest archaeological records in India date to 2000 BC, so domestication in Africa must have taken place earlier. Its origin has been traced to tropical Africa. The center of diversity for the crop is in the Sahel zone of West Africa. Cultivation subsequently spread to east and southern Africa, and southern Asia. Records exist for cultivation of pearl millet in the United States in the 1850s, and the crop was introduced into Brazil in the 1960s.
植物驯化的知识：
瓦维洛夫承认他的“植物地理学分化”说并不尽如理想，又创造了一个“次中心”的概念，以说明多样性中心并不等于起源中心这一事实，而实际上次中心的变异往往比真正的驯化中心还要大。真正的中心是可以逐个予以证实的。他还提出一个“次生作物”（secondary crop)的概念，说次生作物是从古老的杂草或原始作物衍生而来，他以黑麦和燕麦为例，当农业从近东中心和地中海中心向北欧传播时，杂草黑麦和杂草燕麦就作为小麦田及大麦田的“杂质”一起跟随着传播，在这个过程中，黑麦与燕麦远离它们的故乡，发展成为驯化种系，即次生作物。Edgar
Anderson (1954)深受瓦维洛夫的影响，认为农作物常常可以由杂草衍生而来。
Zeven和Zhykovsky
汇总各家学说，把栽培植物起源的顺序作了如下归纳：
1.人们采集野生植物。
2.野生植物的果实、种子、块根的一部分，或采集来的果实、种子、块根的一部分，被带到临时的或半永久性的住所附近，之后，这些子实块根的一部分被遗留或有意地丢在这里，这种情况要持续很长的时间。
3.只有最先适应的,高度变异的野生植物,能在住所附近占据被干扰过的土壤。人们从这些“杂草植物”中选取需用的植株的某些部分。
4.不利的自然选择压力减少了，有利的选择压力被引进了，变异减少了，但因杂交和突变而增多的变异抵消了这种减少，继之以隔离，保护和选择，导致了来自野生表现型的更多的“变员”（deviants)能够存活。这种变员属于“穭生植物区系”（ruderal flora)，或“居住地杂草植物区系”（habitation weed flora)。这个阶段称之为“前农业”（proto-agriculture)时期。
5.当需求超过了可能，人类对某些植物的依赖性更增加了，于是他就开始清除野生的杂草，或采取措施，以改进这些需求植物的生长。当人类的活动超出植物所能供应的范围，他就学会保留种子等办法。当植物生长在它原先生长的范围以外，人们就有目的地为植物翻动土壤，以便能更多地收获这些野生植物，这时，野草便变为一种作物了。这个阶段可称之为“初期农业”（incipient agriculture)。
6.作物的进一步改进是通过半有意的和有意的改善农艺方法和植物类型，这个阶段可称为“有效的农业”（effective agriculture)。完全驯化的植物先要经过“部分驯化”的阶段，包括“穭生植物”（ruderal plants，是指野生于人类居住的环境中，不同于野生于自然界中，也不同于野生在栽培的田间）,
“居住地杂草”（habitation weeds),和“垃圾堆植物”（rubbish heap plants)。凡是对人们有用的植物总是受到重视保护。
最早的作物祖先必然具有杂草的特征，并且有很大的“食物”贮备，能抗干旱和耐贫瘠的土壤，没有多年生植物与它们竞争。在栽培条件下，通过反复的物种间、类型间、生态型间和种系间的分化及杂交周期而诱发变异。在分化的时期里，植物处于遗传的、种的、栽培的和杂交障碍的隔离状态之下。例如，杂交要受到从异花授粉向自花受粉转换的妨碍，受到开花期的改变或生态适应性改变的妨碍；有性繁殖的二倍体植物，其分化作用的时期要比无性繁殖的多倍体植物短得多。短的距离可以只有几百米，如斜坡上生长野生型，山谷地里生长栽培驯化植物。发生于驯化植物与杂草或野生亲缘间的杂交，常常导致一种“双向的基因流”（two-way gene flow)，当栽培的基因一显性时，它们就很少机会生存于杂草或野生植物中，如玉米和大刍草（maize-teosine)所表现的那样。杂草和野生亲缘的滋生，对于向日葵有很大影响，由于杂交，变异就会增多，适应性就会扩大；变异愈大，适应性愈广，该作物可以栽培的地方也愈广泛。
驯化的速度取决于一个世代的长短，禾谷类的一个世代通常为一年，而无性繁殖的植物就不能期望有较快的改变。Braidwood及Howe (1962 )的估计，小麦和大麦的主要改变需要2000年以内，Helback (1966)的估计是1 500年。有些物种是因某种目的而被驯化的，
Anderson (1960 )和Chang( 1970 )认为最早的栽培植物不是粮食作物，而是一些为了纹身、居住地筑栅栏、取毒、咀嚼、麻醉、宗教的目的而栽培。或者为了制作容器（竹筒、葫芦果实、）绳索、药草而栽培。这些植物都是原始人所需用的，一旦人们非依赖它们不可，人们就开始栽培它们。
但是绝大多数的科学家相信最先驯化的是粮食作物。Burkill (1950 )列出他认为驯化作物的次序是：①禾谷类；②豆类；③绿肥；④油料种子；⑤块根类；⑥草本果实；⑦纤维；⑧木本果树；⑨各种工业用植物。
有些野生禾草植物非常适于驯化，因为它们能结大量的种子，它们成片成群的生长，很便于集体收获，它们的种子供食用，茎叶供饲料，种子又易贮藏，人类不会对此视而不见。不论这些学者的观点多么分歧，但他们对中国的看法则颇为一致，中国在他们的心中，都据有突出的地位，
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:01
2.1.9 热带气温下降
V1 by angella0228 710
第三篇是关于热带气温下降的
说热带气温就下降了2度，别的地方都下降了5度。没人可以解释这个。一个科学家G做research发现海里一个什么动物的化石好像，表明他在***时候活着，而那个动物要在很高的温度才能生存，所以就觉得在***时候的气温就下降了2度。而陆地上证据表面下降的更多，和海洋不一致什么的，然后就cast doubt to 科学家G的结论。于是另一个科学家研究了一下发现那个人是错的，每个地方下降的温度都一样。
（1） 问G的research作用
（2） 另一个人的研究发现了什么
Scientists find world's biggest snake
'Titanic' boa fossils provide clues to past tropical climate.
Roberta Kwok
Researchers have found fossils of the biggest known snake in the world, a discovery that could shed light on the climate of the tropics in the past.
The scientists estimate the snake lived 58 to 60 million years ago and was around 13 metres long. The giant, found in northeastern Colombia, dwarfs modern pythons and anacondas which usually don't exceed 6-6.5 metres and are thought to be the largest living snakes.
Since snakes are poikilotherms that, unlike humans, need heat from their environment to power their metabolism, the researchers suggest that at the time the region would have had to be 30 to 34 degrees Celsius for the snake to have survived. Most large snakes alive today live in the South American and southeast Asian tropics, where the high temperatures allow them to grow to impressive sizes.
"We've taken the snake and turned it into a giant thermometer," says lead author and vertebrate palaeontologist Jason Head of the University of Toronto in Canada, who says he "just about screamed" when he first saw the size of the fossils.
“We've taken the snake and turned it into a giant thermometer.”
Jason Head
University of Toronto
Head's colleagues discovered fossilized vertebrae and ribs from 28 individual snakes in an open-pit coal mine at Cerrejón. The vertebrae's structure suggests the snake is closely related to the boa constrictor, leading the team to name the species Titanoboa cerrejonensis, or 'titanic boa from Cerrejon'. By comparing the shapes and sizes of the two best-preserved vertebrae to those of living snakes, the researchers calculated that the snake was 12.8 metres long and weighed 1,135 kilograms.
King of snakes
"It is hands-down the largest snake ever confirmed," says Harry Greene, an evolutionary biologist at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, who was not involved in the work. "I think it's really spectacular."
Using models1 based on the largest modern-day snakes and their estimate of the Titanoboa 's size, the team calculated how hot the tropics must have been 58 to 60 million years ago, a period known as the Palaeocene. The mean annual temperature would need to be at least 30-34 degrees Celsius to support the snake's metabolism, the researchers report in Nature2. This range matches previous estimates from Palaeocene climate models that assume high atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations3.
The results support the idea that the temperature difference between the Palaeocene tropics and higher-latitude regions was as large as it is today, even though the higher latitudes were much warmer during that time. This counters the so-called 'thermostat' hypothesis, which predicts that tropical temperatures would stay fairly stable even as other parts of the world heated up.
The study offers a "really big piece of evidence" to researchers trying to estimate Palaeocene climates, says Lisa Sloan, a climate scientist at the University of California, Santa Cruz. But Greene cautions that the team based their temperature calculations partially on the largest known size of an anaconda today, which the study pegs at 7 metres. This number is "very conservative" and could be as high as 11 metres, Greene says, which would lower the corresponding temperature estimate for the Palaeocene tropics.
作者: 冷冷的 时间: 2011-6-13 14:02
2.2.4伽利略
VI: michelleyiyan 再就是伽利略关于水能在pump里面通过多高的认识，后来说伽利略的认识是错误的，然后提出了另外一个人的观点。
阅读材料：感谢xibao大人！狗主人确定！
Galileo’s parti non quante seem to account for his curious physical treatment of vacua. His attention had been directed to failure of suction pumps and siphons for columns of water beyond a fixed height. He accounted for this by treating water as a material having its own limited tensile strength, on the analogy of rope or copper wire, which will break of its own weight if sufficiently long. The cohesion of matter seemed to him best explained by the existence of minute vacua. Not only did he fail to suggest the weight of air as an explanation of the siphon phenomena, but he rejected that explanation when it was clearly offered to him in a letter by G. B. Baliani. Yet Galileo was not only familiar with the weight of air; he had himself devised practicable methods for its determination, set forth in this same book, giving even the correction for the buoyancy of the air in which the weighing was conducted.
重要提示：http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Galileo.aspx这个是原地址, 介绍Galileo 生平. 然后大家search pump, 第一个pump的那一段就是了
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