2.1.3 Antagonistic symbiosis shrimp和sea butterfly *
Antagonistic symbiosis
P1 写的是发现H.Ditata shrimp的动物有一个奇怪的行为，他们会把sea butterfly背在背上什么的，说这样会减少HD动物的行动力让他们降低捕食能力并且更容易被捕食（这里有一道细节题，问A动物这种行为会是自己产生什么后果，A:it will be more subject to predation. E: it will not move as quickly as it could.主要就是这两个中间一个。应该是A吧？
P 2 写的好像是一个实验科学家做了一个实验，把专门吃HD的鱼和HD还有seabutterfly放在一起，结果鱼不敢吃HD。后来就得出结论，说seabutterfly会释放一种化学物质来保护HD
P 3 是高亮，就是解释这种现象的，说了这个现象跟之前发现的symbiosis的3种分类都不符合(双赢的Mutualism，一个受益一个受害的Parasitism寄生，还有Commensalism共生)，列出了3种分类，然后给出一个新的分类叫antagonistic symbiosis
Q1 symbiosis的3种分类都不符合？什么来的？
Q2 最后一段的作用？ 解释了一种新的category 的产生?
Q3 有个infer 题 就是通过HA不是 1 或2 种寄生你能得出神马结论Lz选的是 一个得利 另一个不受伤害？？？ 具体看选项.
Q4 框架： 提出现象，解释现象，总结新category
Q5 主旨题 全文应该是解释了一种phenomenon//category？？？
The nature of this relationship is puzzling. It is difficult to discern how carrying another organism around can be advantageous. We speculated that in fact, amphipods must be considerably slowed down. By carefully measuring the swimming speeds of amphipods with and without sea butterflies, we found that amphipods carrying sea butterflies moved only half as quickly as similarly sized solitary amphipods. The situation simply made no sense. In reducing their mobility, the amphipods became more vulnerable to predators and less adept at capturing prey. Why, then, would amphipods go out of their way to abduct and carry sea butterflies?
Our experiments clearly demonstrated that something about the sea butterflies was repelling the fish, and we suspected that this deterrence was chemical. To find out, we conducted a second set of feeding experiments. We homogenized the sea butterflies and mixed the homogenate with fish-meal powder to make food pellets. As a control, we also made food pellets containing just the fish-meal powder. We offered both the experimental and the control pellets to fish, which always ate the control pellets and always rejected the pellets containing the homogenate. This provided compelling evidence that compounds might be responsible for the feeding chemical deterrence.
中间删去一段~没什么用
Our experiments demonstrated to us that the sea butterfly C. antarctica synthesizes a deterrent substance that the amphipod H. dilatata exploits for its own protection. This unique association - the abduction of one species by another - is unprecedented in the annals of behavioral and chemical ecology. Some decorator crabs are chemical ecology known to cover their upper carapace with a variety of objects, including the occasional sponge that might harbor defensive chemistry. But this appears to be a nonselective behavior. Crabs haphazardly decorate themselves with whatever is at hand.
The association between the sea butterfly and the amphipod falls within the definition of symbiosis共生, where two dissimilar species live together in an intimate association. However, none of the relationships defined within the broad context of symbiosis - parasitism, comensalism or mutualism - appear to suitably describe the sea butterfly-amphipod relationship.
Parasitism寄生 implies that one species associates with another to the detriment伤害 of one of them. Often, the parasite feeds off the tissues or body fluids of its host. Mutualism共生 describes a relationship where both species benefit from the association. Commensalism describes organisms that live in benign and neutral中立or良性 association with one another. Neither of the latter two interactions appropriately describes what we have observed, and parasitism provides only a very weak analogy to it. We feel that a new term might be needed to describe the "antagonistic symbiosis" that seems to describe most accurately this unique interaction.
寄生:一个伤害另一个，吃对方组织和体液。共生:双方都获利。commensalism共栖:中立，互相不干扰。实际(如果加上下一段的文章): 一个获利，另一个间接受害,若没有下面这段,得看选项怎么说了.网上的定义是the association is disadvantageous or destructive to one of the organisms, but ordinarily it is used of cases where the association is advantageous, or often necessary, to one or both, and not harmful to either.
In this association the antagonist benefits greatly from the relationship. Remember that the amphipod must sacrifice its mobility and speed. Clearly the defense it acquires offsets these drawbacks. The sea butterfly, on the other hand, is at the mercy of the amphipod. While it is being carried around, it cannot feed to sustain its energy【Seabutterfly很惨.没得吃饭】作者: kuaijizu 时间: 2010-12-15 22:36
2.1.4 大脑神经@
Brain neuroplasty神经形成术 synapses 神经键 The brain's network of neurons forms a massively parallel information processing system.
讲人类头脑 和考古有不同~一个neuroplasty开头。一个是synapsesXX神经键，估计变了一下文章，或者两个单词都出现了.是同一篇，某考古有提到
说 neuroplasty的。
P1 说nuroplasty是learning的fancy definition。然后主要介绍了一下它的含义以及人的大脑在成年后也会有所变化。
考古版本
s的单词是synapses. (The actual figuresvary greatly, depending on the local neuroanatomy.) The brain's network of neurons forms a massively parallel information processing system.
第一段: s的单词: synapses. 最后一句话的单词是: process information. modular memory basis被highlight了, 出题问了它出现在文中的作用是什么?
第二段: 对brain process information的过程进行了学术性的描写. 说了大脑的缺陷可以弥补。大脑可以remapping，比如大脑的某一部分本来是用来干嘛的，经过training以后，这部分可以用来控制右手 说了cortex之类的东西.
第三段就是举例说明了. 就是说brain的function从原本我们认为的perform one function变成了can perform different tasks at the same time. 这个区域不仅仅对外界刺激反应，对mental影响也有反应。反正原则就是: 单一性变成了多元化, 内部联系紧密的这么一个感觉.举了很多evidence来support作者: kuaijizu 时间: 2010-12-15 22:37
/////////考古版本：
文章只有一段, 開頭說一個scientist C 對於tropical region 那做了一個實驗, 結果說 tropical ocean 的溫度remains high, whereas其他地方的水在最近一次的 ice age 降了5度.
而那個C用來研究溫度的媒介, 就是一種在tropical 海底的物种FXX..sediment (沉澱物), C的研究同時也反映了 tropical land和其他地方的land的溫度比較關係, 我沒細看這.
後來有一個recent study (沒說誰) 說溫度變化是universal的, 並非tropical 地區降溫比較少(也沒給解釋), 進而質疑了C的實驗(這邊重要). 基於這個原因, 另外一個scientist G 就著手往一個 Ba 開頭的海岸去找尋證據. 他用了一種coral 中的chemical sensitive to temperature(记得一个题目，怎么问忘了，但很坏，文章里只说了化学物质DEPEND ON THE CHANGE OF海水温度，没说成正反比，然后有一选项说化合物随温度增加而增加). G 的實驗結果證實了再最近一次的溫度下降是universal.
Q1 说C的问题出在哪里？ 选项有他的证据里面有自相矛盾.G就发现了//////选的是因为跟existing finding矛盾，因为原文说了since1976好多别的studies就说他不对了，A选项是说他认为热带比别的地方 cool less，跟prior 1976之前的观点比，我觉得不对，文中没说之前的研究吧
Q2 recent study 說明了C的研究的什麼:有考古提到inaccurate,有考古说没有，注意此key word
有一個干擾選項: D’s study is inaccurate because the sediment used 還是什麼的. 那個不對, 文章沒有給這個inaccurate的形容詞.
我選了, D’s study is limited it can not support a hypothesis about ocean water 還是類似的.
城市扩张 CITY SPRWAL
第一段：以前对于城市扩张的研究都是依据推测，最近发明一种方法，可以通过卫星图片检测。
第二段：为了取得footing，讲了三种因素对城市扩张的影响。他们是CLIMATE,HILLS,undergroundWATER。这三种都是有影响的。他们首先发现climate是一个原因，in mild climate, people tend to spread out. 还发现hill和mountain也是原因，hill是引起人们在hilly地方建造的成本，而mountain则是barrier，帮助compact city（有道题目说hill和mountain起direct 作用，我觉得是错的）；还有地下水也有帮助，easy access to groundwater may help. （有题）
第三段：讲了道路系统对城市没有evidence证明影响。虽然以前一直认为有。
第四段：讲了城市行政划分（大都市区的城市municipalities数量，也就是法律约束区别）对城市扩张没有影响。虽然以前一直认为有。但是解释说可能是由于人们倾向于住在城市边缘正好外面的地方，这样可以不受城市里严格法律的约束；
第五段：总结，然后他们发现有些common complaints是正确的:scattered导致城市基础建设成本增加。作者同意这个，提到获得更多补助的城市的发展更加scattered,然后提到说由于城市的建设需要纳税人的钱，所以纳税人更倾向于不需要那么多基础设施建设的发展模式。小组的目标就是帮人们建立概念
Q1 说第二段和第三四段的关系，我选的是二是讲有什么影响了，三是纠正一些以前觉得有影响但实际上没有的。
【这里开始是怀疑被删减的部分，根据GG，第一段只提了新研究和卫星】
A View Of Urban Sprawl From Outer Space Recent urban development in Los Angeles is less scattered than recent development in Boston. Miami is America's most compact big city and Pittsburgh is most sprawling. Changing the number or size of municipal governments in a metro area has no impact on whether or not urban development is scattered, but controlling access to groundwater does.
【控制地下水has impact on是否城市发展呈分散化】
These are among the startling findings from a University of Toronto-based team of researchers who used satellite data and aerial photography to create a grid of 8.7 billion data cells tracking the evolution of land use in the continental United States.
Matthew Turner and Diego Puga of the University of Toronto, Marcy Burchfield of the Neptis Foundation, a Toronto-based organization focused on urban and regional research, and Henry Overman of the London School of Economics present their findings in the May issue of The Quarterly Journal of Economics, in a paper entitled Causes of Sprawl: A Portrait（标本，模型） from Space. Heavily illustrated with Geographic Information System images, the paper challenges conventional wisdom about urban sprawl and presents a vivid and detailed picture of land consumption in America's cities.
【就是说新研究出现】整段有一半是头衔，我勒个X
Though urban sprawl is widely regarded as an important environmental and social problem, according to the authors, much of the debate over sprawl is based on speculation推测. The data to conduct detailed and systematic measurement of how and where land is converted to urban use has, until now, simply not been available. Despite widespread interest in the topic, "we know next to nothing （差不多没有）about the extent to which development is scattered or compact, and how this varies across space," they write. 【以前研究的局限：based on speculation】 没有好的measurement。
The authors merged high-altitude photos from 1976 with satellite images from 1992 (the most recent available) to create a grid of 8.7 billion 30-metre by 30-metre cells that tracks land use changes nationwide. "The data set we've constructed is unprecedented（空前的） in that we have coverage of the whole continental United States with a very high degree of accuracy for two time periods. That's never been done before," says Turner.【新研究的优势：覆盖面广：有两个时期的精确图，精确性accuracy】
The new high-resolution data allow the authors to observe the amount of open space in the neighborhood of every house in every U.S. city. Since development is more scattered when there is more open space around a house, the authors measured urban sprawl by calculating the average amount of open space in the neighborhood of a house in each city.【measure urban sprawl 的具体方法：计算各个城市的房子附近的空地的平均大小】
They found that more recent residential development is not any more（不再）
scattered than development was in 1976. 42 percent of land in the square kilometre surrounding the average residential development in 1976 was open space, compared with 43 percent in 1992. （空地增多，也就是城市化的土地变少了，是这个意思不？）”While a substantial amount of scattered residential development was built between 1976 and 1992, overall residential development did not become any more biased toward such sprawling areas."【结论一：scatter现象不再明显了】
The authors are quick to point out that any one household would have seen much change in the study period, but that "if we zoom out and look at the city from a distance, we see little change, at least in terms of the proportions of sprawling and compact development: the new city is just like an enlarged version of the old city."【结论二：虽然household 的变化大，但实际city的sprawling并不明显。】
Overall, Boston is less scattered than Atlanta, however recent development in Boston has been less compact than recent development in Atlanta. Miami, San Francisco and Los Angeles were the most compact major cities, while Pittsburgh and Atlanta were the most scattered.作者: kuaijizu 时间: 2010-12-15 22:38
【下面开始才是重点原文，上面估计删减改写了，重点不多。】
The authors also investigated why some cities are more sprawling than others. They found that a city's climate, topography and access to groundwater account for 25 percent of the nationwide variation. When the climate is temperate, people spread out to have more space to enjoy the weather.【研究城市之间sprawling的不同：1，适度气候导致人们spread out】
Hilly places see more scattered development as people avoid the costs of building on hillsides — but mountains act as a barrier and lead to more compact development. Places with easy access to groundwater see more scattered development, since people can supply remote houses with water by drilling inexpensive wells rather than paying for water lines. 【研究城市之间sprawling的不同：2，avoid cost of building on hill,hill上面修房子太贵，类似HK太平山，Mountain像栅栏让城市compact，地下水很好很便宜导致scattered】
加亮部分有题：估计是推理题，问 mountain对scatter现象的作用有什么不同.这里把握住作者态度即可：hillside会导致scatter，mountain却反而more compact. "The presence of aquifers（蓄水层） is particularly important," says Turner, "and that seems to me to have policy implications. It looks as if controlling access to groundwater is an important way to control whether development spreads or not."【照应文章第一段观点：控制地下水源决定了城市扩张程度】
Roads, on the other hand, have no impact on the extent to which development is scattered, despite commonly held beliefs to the contrary. "We looked at a lot of measures of road density — miles of road per area, average distance to a road, distance to an interstate exit — and we could find no relation between those measures and the scatteredness of development," Turner says. 【道路系统与scattered没有关系】
The number of municipalities in a metropolitan area also does not affect development patterns. "You hear about fragmentation of jurisdictions being an important determinant of development patterns and we could find no evidence for that," says Turner. However, the team also found that development near cities is less scattered if it occurs in a municipality than if it occurs in an unincorporated area of a county. This suggests that people may be moving out to just beyond municipal boundaries in order to avoid more stringent municipal regulations.【municipalities行政区域划分也没有关系，但是有个现象：边缘比内部scattered】
【猜想1】：这里可以考municipalities影响cities to be less scattered than unincorporated area的原因：avoid more stringent regulations. 人都跑出去了，所以外面更乱
One of the common complaints about urban sprawl is that as development spreads, municipal services such as roads, sewers, police and fire protection are more expensive. The authors suggest that this concern is well founded. Development in municipalities that receive larger subsidies from higher levels of government is, on average, more scattered. Says Puga, "This suggests that as local taxpayers are held accountable（=responsible） for infrastructure costs, they respond by insisting on patterns of development that require less infrastructure spending."
"People have been eager to rush to policy prescriptions without a very good understanding of the underlying phenomena," says Turner. "We wanted to try to put the policy discussion on sounder footing."【总结】作者: kuaijizu 时间: 2010-12-15 22:38
考古 2.3.3
Milankovitch Cycles Theory
Milankovitch cycles theory is about the frequency of ice age. Milankovich proposed that the temperature of earth has something to do with the position of the earth in the orbit around sun. However it did not gain acceptance until 1968 when Dr. Imbrie presented additional evidence for M theory. He meassured the isotope同位素 level in small seashell deposit and the change of isotope abundancy corresponds with the temperature change.
However, later on, a geochemist tested the samples from Devil's Hole, a place in south Nevada and the results did not match with the previous results.
Even thought Dr. Imbrie still think M theory was valid, he conceded that many other factors contribute to the isotope level. It is maybe why the results did not match.
Milankovitch proposed in the early twentieth
century that the ice ages were caused by variations
in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. For some
time this theory was considered untestable,
(5)largely because there was no sufficiently precise
chronology of the ice ages with which the orbital
variations could be matched.
P1：M提出一个理论, 指出其缺陷
To establish such a chronology it is necessary
to determine the relative amounts of land ice that
(10)existed at various times in the Earth’s past. A recent
discovery makes such a determination possible:
relative land-ice volume for a given period can be
deduced from the ratio of two oxygen isotopes,
16 and 18, found in ocean sediments. Almost
(15)all the oxygen in water is oxygen 16, but a few
molecules out of every thousand incorporate the
heavier isotope 18. When an ice age begins, the
continental ice sheets grow, steadily reducing the
amount of water evaporated from the ocean that
(20)will eventually return to it. Because heavier isotopes
tend to be left behind when water evaporates
from the ocean surfaces, the remaining ocean
water becomes progressively enriched in oxygen
18. The degree of enrichment can be determined
(25)by analyzing ocean sediments of the period,
because these sediments are composed of calcium
carbonate (calcium carbonate: n.[化]碳酸钙) shells of marine organisms, shells that
were constructed with oxygen atoms drawn from
the surrounding ocean. The higher the ratio of
(30)oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 in a sedimentary specimen,
the more land ice there was when the sediment
was laid down.
P2: 一个新发现可弥补M理论的缺陷
As an indicator of shifts in the Earth’s climate,
the isotope record has two advantages. First, it is
(35)a global record: there is remarkably little variation
in isotope ratios in sedimentary specimens taken
from different continental locations. Second, it is
a more continuous record than that taken from
rocks on land. Because of these advantages,
(40)sedimentary evidence can be dated with sufficient
accuracy by radiometric methods to establish a
precise chronology of the ice ages. The dated
isotope record shows that the fluctuations in
global ice volume over the past several hundred
(45)thousand years have a pattern: an ice age occurs
roughly once every 100,000 years. These data have
established a strong connection between variations
in the Earth’s orbit and the periodicity of the ice
ages.
P3：新发现的优点
However, it is important to note that other
(50)factors, such as volcanic particulates or variations
in the amount of sunlight received by the Earth,
could potentially have affected the climate. The
advantage of the Milankovitch theory is that it 作者表态，有保留的支持
is testable: changes in the Earth’s orbit can be
(55)calculated and dated by applying Newton’s laws
of gravity to progressively earlier configurations
of the bodies in the solar system. Yet the lack of
information about other possible factors affecting
global climate does not make them unimportant.
P4：其他的理论也不容忽视
70. In the passage, the author is primarily interested in
A suggesting an alternative to an outdated research method
B introducing a new research method that calls an accepted theory into question
C emphasizing the instability of data gathered from the application of a new scientific method
D presenting a theory and describing a new method to test that theory（D）
E initiating a debate about a widely accepted theory
71. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements about the Milankovitch theory?
AIt is the only possible explanation for the ice ages.
BIt is too limited to provide a plausible explanation for the ice ages, despite recent research findings.
CIt cannot be tested and confirmed until further research on volcanic activity is done.
DIt is one plausible explanation, though not the only one, for the ice ages. （D）
EIt is not a plausible explanation for the ice ages, although it has opened up promising possibilities for future research.
72. It can be inferred from the passage that the isotope record taken from ocean sediments would be less useful to researchers if which of the following were true?
A It indicated that lighter isotopes of oxygen predominated at certain times.
B It had far more gaps in its sequence than the record taken from rocks on land.否定了第二点
C It indicated that climate shifts did not occur every 100,000 years.削弱M理论，而不是方法
D It indicated that the ratios of oxygen 16 and oxygen 18 in ocean water were not consistent with those found in fresh water.
E It stretched back for only a million years.
73. According to the passage, which of the following is true of the ratios of oxygen isotopes in ocean sediments?
They indicate that sediments found during an ice age contain more calcium carbonate than sediments formed at other times.
They are less reliable than the evidence from rocks on land in determining the volume of land ice.
They can be used to deduce the relative volume of land ice that was present when the sediment was laid down.
They are more unpredictable during an ice age than in other climatic conditions.
They can be used to determine atmospheric conditions at various times in the past.
74. It can be inferred from the passage that precipitation formed from evaporated ocean water has
A the same isotopic ratio as ocean water
B less oxygen 18 than does ocean water
C less oxygen 18 than has the ice contained in continental ice sheets
D a different isotopic composition than has precipitation formed from water on land
E more oxygen 16 than has precipitation formed from fresh water
75. It can be inferred from the passage that calcium carbonate shells
A are not as susceptible to deterioration as rocks
B are less common in sediments formed during an ice age
C are found only in areas that were once covered by land ice
D contain radioactive material that can be used to determine a sediment’s isotopic composition
E reflect the isotopic composition of the water at the time the shells were formed
DDBCBE作者: kuaijizu 时间: 2010-12-15 22:39
2.3.4 风暴眼
P1: 过去对hurricane风速的研究使用的方法只能测量flight level的风速：一个aircraft带着A物体上升到空中可以探测到aircraft 自身高度以及below的位置的风暴强度（1600 feet？数字不重要，高度），后来一种新的技术（貌似是可以卫星定位之类的）可以测量相对ground level的风速。这里涉及到2部分风速的测量，near the eye & out of the eye，对于near the eye，max通常发生在一个XX高度，而对于out of the eye则发生在更高处。其中说到一个例子，说near the eye/eye wall 30层高处比地面surface风速快20miles/h（有题）。然后说地面相对于flight level风速，near the eye/eye wall地面是flight level的90%，out of the eye地面是flight level的78%
Q1为什么知道这个crabpalmur年轻？ 答因为从那个remainant里面发现的所以年轻。貌似错了？
Q2另一个好像是关于主旨的。（全文：给出一个普遍的现象，再讲一个特殊的现象，可能导致的原因）主旨~解释一个新现象？
Q3有题问下面那个物体最年轻，我返回文中找到的是一个sediment的什么东西，好像是什么物质的碎片~爆炸后的碎片产生的某星A？（由于碎物一般寿命很短，所以诞生于碎物种的A同学都是很年轻的。）？？
Q4.作者提到normal P的1%是为了啥？ 验证P2那个说法？ ////应该是说作者在第二段中讨论的现象是比较独特的，存在于 Global Cluster (星团)，在 normal binary system (双子星)中并不常见。??
Q5第二段又发现一种好几billion那么老的也发光，为什么？因为有伴星来吸？？
Q6中子星从周围吸收物质后，发生了什么变化。答案应该是选“spin more quickly, and become pulsar again.作者: kuaijizu 时间: 2010-12-15 22:40
