Although recent censure of corporate boards of directors as “passive” and “supine” may be excessive, those who criticize board performance have plenty of substantive ammunition. Too many corporate boards fail in their two crucial responsibilities of overseeing long-term company strategy and of selecting, evaluating, and determining appropriate compensation of top management. At times, despite disappointing corporate performance, compensation of chief executive officers reaches indefensibly high levels, nevertheless, suggestions that the government should legislate board reform are premature. There are ample opportunities for boards themselves to improve corporate performance.
Most corporate boards’ compensation committees focus primarily on peer-group comparisons. They are content if the pay of top executives approximates that of the executives of competing firms with comparable short-term earnings or even that of executives of competing firms of comparable size. However, mimicking the compensation policy of competitors for the sake of parity means neglecting the value of compensation as a means of stressing long-term performance. By tacitly detaching executive compensation policy from long-term performance, committees harm their companies and the economy as a whole. The committees must develop incentive compensation policies to emphasize long-term performance. For example a board’s compensation committee can, by carefully proportioning straight salary and such short-term and long-term incentives as stock options, encourage top management to pursue a responsible strategy.
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Q14
According to the passage, the majority of compensation committees put the greatest emphasis on which of the following when determining compensation for their executives?
A. Long-term corporate performance
B. The threat of government regulation
C. Salaries paid to executives of comparable corporations
D. The probable effect the determination will have on competitors
E. The probable effect the economic climate will have on the company
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Q15
The passage suggests which of the following about government legislation requiring that corporate boards undergo reform?
A. Such legislation is likely to discourage candidates from joining corporate boards.
B. Such legislation is likely to lead to reduced competition among companies.
C.The performance of individual companies would be affected by such legislation to a greater extent than would the economy as a whole.
D. Such legislation would duplicate initiatives already being made by corporate boards to improve their own performance.
E.Corporate boards themselves could act to make such legislation unnecessary.
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Q16
Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
A. A problem is acknowledged, the causes are explored, and a solution is offered.
B. A question is raised, opposing points of view are evaluated, and several alternative answers are discussed.
C. A means of dealing with a problem is proposed, and the manner in which a solution was reached is explained.
D. A plan of action is advanced, and the probable outcomes of that plan are discussed.
E. Two competing theories are described and then reconciled.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:03
４. 这篇文章的主旨是什么？
答：解释了为什么支票一直还在使用的几个原因
Despite the growing availability and acceptance of electronic payment instruments —such as credit cards, debitcards, and automated clearinghouse (ACH) payments—by far the most popular noncash payment instrument used in the United States is the paper check. In 1995, approximately 80 percent of all noncash transactions were made by check (Bank for International Settlements, forthcoming). Furthermore, although use of electronic instruments has grown in the past several years, check use has grown as well: between 1987 and 1993, the average annual number of payments per capita increased by 26 payments for electronic instruments, but by 31 payments for checks (Humphrey, Pulley, and Vesala, forthcoming). Clearly, individuals and businesses are not rapidly shifting away from checks to electronic instruments.
The popularity of checks persists even though checks cost society more to produce and process than do electronic instruments. According to standard economic theory, that may be a sign that the market for payment instruments is not working properly. In general, in an efficient market, when competing goods are available and one costs society more, the prices of the goods will reflect the relative costs of the resources used to produce them, and the cheaper good will be substituted for the more expensive. In this way, society uses its resources to produce only the particular goods it wants in the particular amounts it wants. In other words, resources are used efficiently. When use does not shift to the cheaper goods, either the goods are not close substitutes or the market has failed, and there is a potential role for a public authority to attempt to correct the failure.
Market failure is a commonly accepted view of what’s happened in the market for payment instruments. According to this view, the users of checks are the check writers. And for those individuals and businesses, the private cost, or price, of using checks has been distorted by the value of check float, or the time between the writing and clearing of a check. During that time, of course, the funds can earn interest for the check writer rather than for the check receiver. The size of this benefit is thought to have reduced the price of check use below the cost to society of producing and processing checks. Since individuals and businesses don’t face that higher social cost, they continue to use checks despite the existence of other means of payment that are less costly to society. In short, checks are overused.
The main reason for this new conclusion is that the value of float for all checks has decreased significantly since the Humphrey and Berger (1990) study. I estimate that, in real terms, between 1987 and 1993, the value of float for an average check payment dropped from $1.04 to $0.09, or about 90 percent.
The reasons for this dramatic drop in the value of float are primarily greater efficiency in check processing and lower short-term interest rates. Both the labor and capital involved in check processing became more efficient between 1987 and 1993. During that time, for example, the Bank Administration Institute (1994) estimates that check encoding labor productivity at commercial banks, measured in items encoded per hour, increased about 24 percent. Over the same period, the productivity of readersorters (the high-speed equipment used to process checks), measured in items processed per hour, increased 18 percent. These productivity increases have expedited check clearing. At the same time, the amount of interest that float allows check users to earn shrank considerably. For example, between 1987 and 1993, the average three-month secondary market U.S. Treasury bill rate fell about 50 percent, from 5.78 to 3.00 percent (FR Board, various dates).
That view is suspect even if the data still supported it, though. The view seems to assume that only the agent on one side of a transaction—the check writer—recognizes and takes advantage of the value of float. That assumption doesn’t correspond with expected rational behavior. Since float is a transfer payment from the check receiver to the check writer, with no allocative effects overall, rational agents are likely to negotiate a mutually beneficial distribution of any significant value of float. And, in fact, this type of negotiation is common for large payments between businesses, for which the value of float is potentially large. In practice, many business-to-business payments contractually stipulate payment transaction terms that internalize the effects of float.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:03
1. 有道infer 题（INFER 消费者的行为）
答：the consumers know the frequency of discount in a certain interval. (因为文中有这么一句话：Although the consumers only know approximate frequency of discount)
2. 有一个问manufacturer曾试过什么方法来避免这种现象
答：根据题目定位，选的一些M采用每天都低价的战略（everyday XX price）
3. some manufacturer intend to advertise the discount by themselves, what is their assumption?
答：If the customers know the discount message, they will spent more time in searching for the discount (so the retailers will not benefit from the discount by not offering to the customers)
有很多conditions会左右consumption，比如time, complicity, ease of preparation。讲了XXconvenience，比如说包装如果很方便拆开或者使用起来不需要做很多准备工作，大家就更加愿意购买。最后又说了但是不方便的包装有时候也会增加consumption,比如一大袋食物做一次很麻烦，消费者就会一次做很多省事。结尾是用泡冰茶举例，说明泡一小包冰茶和一罐冰茶工序是一样的。
2. 主旨题
答：一个是challenge传统理论，另一个是分析convenience什么的，explore relations between stockpiling and consumption of food products.
3. 问题是问stock piling和trigger consumption increase的关系在high-convenience package和low-convenience package中一样吗？
答：that stockpiling increases product salience and triggers consumption incidence among high-convenience products. However, when the decision is made to consume a product, stockpiling increases the consumption quantity for both high- and low-convenience products.
In the context of packaged goods, consumer behavior research tends to focus on purchase decisions rather than consumption decisions. Yet consumers’ ability to increase consumption is critical for growing mature brands that have already achieved high levels of household penetration and loyalty (Wansink 1994a; Wansink and Ray 1996). Understanding postpurchase consumption behavior is also important in the assessment of the profitability of stockpilinginducing promotions, such as multiunit packs or “buy one get one free” offers, which may deplete future sales unless consumers increase consumption rates (Blattberg and Neslin 1990).
As is shown in Figure 1, the convenience of consuming the product moderates the impact of stockpiling on consumption rate: Stockpiling is more likely to trigger consumption incidence for high-convenience products than for low-convenience products. Consumption convenience can contribute to as much as 48% of impulsively consumed food (Wansink 1994b). Consumption convenience is a function of the time, comfort, and ease of preparation, depending on the number, complexity, cost, and accessibility of the operations required before consumption (Gehrt and Yale 1993; Reilly 1982). Consumption convenience can be influenced by packaging (e.g., individually wrapped packs are convenient because they do not force consumers to use, store, or waste the remaining quantity), and it applies to food as well as nonfood products (e.g., prestamped envelopes versus regular unstamped envelopes).
We anticipate that convenience moderates the impact that stockpiling has on consumption incidence but does not influence the impact on consumption quantity (given incidence). Low-convenience products are ingredients or steps in a broader process. They often require the availability of other ingredients and the performance of multiple operations before they can be consumed. For example, consuming iced tea from a mix requires time, water, a container, a spoon, and refrigeration; using detergent requires time, dirty laundry, and a washing machine. All these ingredients need to be available for consumption incidence to occur. However, when all the ingredients are available and the first consumption incidence occurs, low-convenience products can subsequently be consumed in higher quantities relatively easily. Preparing a small pitcher (大水罐) of iced tea from a powdered mix, for example, requires almost as much time and effort as preparing a large pitcher. Stockpiling therefore increases consumption quantity (given incidence) for high- and lowconvenience products. However, stockpiling triggers consumption incidence primarily for high-convenience products. As a result, stockpiling increases total consumption (the product of higher incidence and higher quantity given incidence) more for high-convenience products than for low-convenience products.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:04
1.1.7 雇佣人数 (已与原1.1.13经济萧条合并)
第一段：
1980年左右a wave of layoff雇佣人数下降因为在第二次世界大战之后是很正常的，而令人奇怪的是1993年雇用人数也下降了为什么呢？第一段给了个解释， 说什么是由高科技引起的，导致工人效率的提高，所以layoff,第一段尾反驳了（有题），说科技是慢慢影响的，三十年什么的。
第二段:
就提出了新理论，说labor cost 才是原因，说什么part time 的人,工资低，福利不好，还有就是layoff全职的人。作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:04
Under certain market conditions, gray marketing can benefit manufacturers and retailers. The favorable market condition is met when the customer base is distinctively segmented- i.e. the presence of a significant number of both price sensitive and price insensitive customers. 虽然灰色区销售的商品可能价格低，但是正规渠道的销售和灰色区销售吸引的人群不一样，有些人看重价格因素，就会去灰色区购买，而有些人习惯在超市购买，自然也会继续自己的习惯。
第三段：
In the presence of market segmentation, manufacturers and retailers can increase profits by charging higher prices to price insensitive customers while improving the quality of the service. This measure will most likely offset the loss of revenue from price sensitive customers. gray market将价格敏感性的顾客全部吸引，从而使得零售商可以专心的服务于那些价格非敏感客户，提高服务水平等等。对于制造商，则可以如何如何。
题目：
1．主旨题
答：To explain how gray market can benefit the profit and margin of manufacturers and retailers
2. 作者suggest Dutch Disease这个应该怎么解决呢？
答：regulate exchange rate to a fixed number （把limitation搞紧一点）
3. 主旨题
答：解释一个新概念
There are two basic ways to reduce the threat of Dutch disease: by slowing the appreciation of the real exchange rate and by boosting the competitiveness of the manufacturing sector.
One approach is to sterilize the boom revenues, that is, not to bring all the revenues into the country all at once, and to save some of the revenues abroad in special funds and bring them in slowly. Sterilisation will reduce the spending effect. Another benefit of letting the revenues into the country slowly is that it can give a country a stable revenue stream, rather than not knowing how much revenue it will have from year to year. Also, by saving the boom revenues, a country is saving some of the revenues for future generations.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:07
1.1.14 企业联合模式
第一段：
企业合作有两种模式，Brand sharing和asset sharing。举了个brand的例子先，说是飞机上卖咖啡，可以提高咖啡的知名度。然后又说其实有些unfair的risk在这里。比如没有人会仅因为咖啡不好喝就不坐这个公司的飞机，但是可能会造成对这个咖啡很不好的口碑。asset合作的公司，要求说两个联合方可以有完全不同的产品，但可以share real estate and technology，主要是为了降低成本。一个什么店开在一个什么店旁边，利用其中一个店的丰富客源来为另一个店吸引生意。然后解释说这个asset合作的risk怎么怎么的，举了个例子说是一个高级宾馆什么的和一个barget饭馆合作饭馆合作显然是不会很成功的。
1.1.17 专利
The system of patent-granting, which confers temporary monopolies for the exploitation of new technologies, was originally established as an incentive to the pursuit of risky new ideas. Yet studies of the most patent-conscious business of all—the semiconductor industries—suggest that firms do not necessarily become more innovative as they increase their patenting activity. Ziedonis and Hall, for example, found that investment in research and development (a reasonable proxy for innovation) did not substantially increase between 1982 and 1992, the industry’s most feverish period of patenting. Instead, semiconductor firms simply squeezed more patents out of existing research and development expenditures. Moreover, Ziedonis and Hall found that as patenting activity at semiconductor firms increased in the 1980’s, the consensus among industry employees was that the average quality of their firms’ patents declined. Though patent quality is a difficult notion to measure, the number of times a patent is cited in the technical literature is a reasonable yardstick, and citations per semiconductor patent did decline during the 1980’s. This decline in quality may be related to changes in the way semiconductor firms managed their patenting process: rather than patenting to win exclusive rights to a valuable new technology, patents were filed more for strategic purposes, to be used as bargaining chips to ward off infringement suites or as a means to block competitors’ products.
GWD-8-Q7 :
The passage is primarily concerned with discussing
A. a study suggesting that the semiconductor industry’s approach to patenting during the period from 1982 to 1992 yielded unanticipated results
B. a study of the semiconductor industry during the period from 1982 to 1992 that advocates certain changes in the industry’s management of the patenting process
C. the connection between patenting and innovation in the semiconductor industry during the period from 1982 to 1992
D. reasons that investment in research and development in the semiconductor industry did not increase significantly during the period from 1982 to 1992
E. certain factors that made the period from 1982 to 1992 a time of intense patenting activity in the semiconductor industry
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GWD-8-Q8 :
The passage suggests which of the following about patenting in the semiconductor industry during the period from 1982 to 1992 ?
A. The declining number of citations per semiconductor patent in the technical literature undermines the notion that patenting activity increased during this period.
B. A decline in patent quality forced firms to change the way they managed the patenting process.
C. Increased efficiencies allowed firms to derive more patents from existing research and development expenditures.
D. Firms’ emphasis on filing patents for strategic purposes may have contributed to a decline in patent quality.
E. Firms’ attempts to derive more patents from existing research and development expenditures may have contributed to a decline in infringement suites.
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GWD-8-Q9 :
The passage makes which of the following claims about patent quality in the semiconductor industry?
A. It was higher in the early 1980’s than it was a decade later.
B. It is largely independent of the number of patents granted.
C. It changed between 1982 and 1992 in ways that were linked to changes in research and development expenditures.
D. It is not adequately discussed in the industry’s technical literature.
E. It was measured by inappropriate means during the period from 1982 to 1992.
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GWD-8-Q10:
Which of the following, if true, would most clearly serve to weaken the author’s claim about what constitutes a reasonable yardstick for measuring patent quality?
A. It is more difficult to have an article accepted for publication in the technical literature of the semiconductor industry than it is in the technical literature of most other industries
B. Many of the highest-quality semiconductor patents are cited numerous times in the technical literature
C. It is difficult for someone not familiar with the technical literature to recognize what constitutes an innovative semiconductor patent
D. There were more citations made per semiconductor patent in the technical literature in the 1970’s than in the 1980’s
E. Low-quality patents tend to be discussed in the technical literature as frequently as high-quality patents.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:08
1.3Human (Woman) Revolution & Historical stuff
1.3.1关于“公谊会教徒Quakers”中的女性的教育★
In her account of unmarried women’s experiences in colonial Philadelphia
, Wulf argues that educated young women, particularly Quakers, engaged in resistance to patriarchal marriage by exchanging poetry critical of marriage, copying verse into their commonplace books.Wulf suggests that this critique circulated beyond the daughters of the Quaker elite and middle class, whose commonplace books she mines, proposing that Quaker schools brought it to many poor female students of diverse backgrounds.
Here Wulf probably overstates Quaker schools’ impact. At least three years’ study would be necessary to achieve the literacy competence necessary to grapple with the material she analyzes. In 1765, the year Wulf uses to demonstrate the diversity of Philadelphia’s Quaker schools, 128 students enrolled in these schools.Refining Wulf’s numbers by the information she provides on religious affiliation, gender, and length of study, it appears that only about 17 poor non-Quaker girls were educated in Philadelphia’s Quaker schools for three years or longer.While Wulf is correct that a critique of patriarchal marriage circulated broadly, Quaker schools probably cannot be credited with instilling these ideas in the lower classes.Popular literary satires on marriage had already landed on fertile ground in a multiethnic population that embodied a wide range of marital beliefs and practices.These ethnic- and class-based traditions themselves challenged the legitimacy of patriarchal marriage.
Q15: The primary purpose of the passage is to
A. argue against one aspect of Wulf’s account of how ideas critical of marriage were disseminated among young women in colonial Philadelphia
B. discuss Wulf’s interpretation of the significance for educated young women in colonial Philadelphia of the poetry they copied into their commonplace books
C. counter Wulf’s assertions about the impact of the multiethnic character of colonial Philadelphia’s population on the prevalent views about marriage
D. present data to undermine Wulf’s assessment of the diversity of the student body in Quaker schools in colonial Philadelphia
E. challenge Wulf’s conclusion that a critique of marriage was prevalent among young women of all social classes in colonial Philadelphia
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Q16: According to the passage, which of the following was true of attitudes toward marriage in colonial Philadelphia?
A. Exemplars of a critique of marriage could be found in various literary forms, but they did not impact public attitudes except among educated young women.
B. The diversity of the student body in the Quaker schools meant that attitudes toward marriage were more disparate there than elsewhere in Philadelphia society.
C. Although critical attitudes toward marriage were widespread, Quaker schools’ influence in disseminating these attitudes was limited.
D. Criticisms of marriage in colonial Philadelphia were directed at only certain limited aspects of patriarchal marriage.
E. The influence of the wide range of marital beliefs and practices present in Philadelphia’s multiethnic population can be detected in the poetry that educated young women copied in their commonplace books.
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Q17: The author of the passage implies which of the following about the poetry mentioned in the first paragraph?
A. Wulf exaggerates the degree to which young women from an elite background regarded the poetry as providing a critique of marriage.
B. The circulation of the poetry was confined to young Quaker women.
C. Young women copied the poetry into their commonplace books because they interpreted it as providing a desirable model of unmarried life.
D. The poetry’s capacity to influence popular attitudes was restricted by the degree of literacy necessary to comprehend it.
E. The poetry celebrated marital beliefs and practices that were in opposition to patriarchal marriage.
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Q18:
Which of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine the author’s basis for saying that Wulf overstates Quaker schools’ impact (lines 17-18)?
A. The information that Wulf herself provided on religious affiliation and gender of students is in fact accurate.
B. Most poor, non-Quaker students enrolled in Quaker schools had completed one or two years’ formal or informal schooling before enrolling.
C. Not all of the young women whose commonplace books contained copies of poetry critical of marriage were Quakers.
D. The poetry featured in young women’s commonplace books frequently included allusions that were unlikely to be accessible to someone with only three years’ study in school.
E. In 1765 an unusually large proportion of the Quaker schools’ student body consisted of poor girls from non-Quaker backgrounds.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:11
1.3.3 二战美国女性与政治★
The fields of antebellum (pre-Civil War) political history and women’s history use separate sources and focus on separate issues. Political historians, examining sources such as voting records, newspapers, and politicians’ writings, focus on the emergence in the 1840’s of a new “American political nation,” and since women were neither voters nor politicians, they receive little discussion. Women’s historians, meanwhile, have shown little interest in the subject of party politics, instead drawing on personal papers, legal records such as wills, and records of female associations to illuminate women’s domestic lives, their moral reform activities, and the emergence of the woman’s rights movement.
However, most historians have underestimated the extent and significance of women’s political allegiance in the antebellum period. For example, in the presidential election campaigns of the 1840’s, the Virginia Whig party strove to win the allegiance of Virginia’s women by inviting them to rallies and speeches. According to Whig propaganda, women who turned out at the party’s rallies gathered information that enabled them to mold party-loyal families, reminded men of moral values that transcended party loyalty, and conferred moral standing on the party. Virginia Democrats, in response, began to make similar appeals to women as well. By the mid-1850’s the inclusion of women in the rituals of party politics had become commonplace, and the ideology that justified such inclusion had been assimilated by the Democrats.
GWD1-Q4:
The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
A. examine the tactics of antebellum political parties with regard to women
B. trace the effect of politics on the emergence of the woman’s rights movement
C. point out a deficiency in the study of a particular historical period
D. discuss the ideologies of opposing antebellum political parties
E. contrast the methodologies in two differing fields of historical inquiry
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GWD1-Q5:
According to the second paragraph of the passage (lines 20-42), Whig propaganda included the assertion that
A. women should enjoy more political rights than they did
B. women were the most important influences on political attitudes within a family
C. women’s reform activities reminded men of important moral values
D. women’s demonstrations at rallies would influence men’s voting behavior
E. women’s presence at rallies would enhance the moral standing of the party
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GWD1-Q6:
According to the passage, which of the following was true of Virginia Democrats in the mid-1850’s?
A. They feared that their party was losing its strong moral foundation.
B. They believed that the Whigs’ inclusion of women in party politics had led to the Whigs’ success in many elections.
C. They created an ideology that justified the inclusion of women in party politics.
D. They wanted to demonstrate that they were in support of the woman’s rights movement.
E. They imitated the Whigs’ efforts to include women in the rituals of party politics.作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:12
1.4Art & Culture
1.4.1广告★
In their classic article, Wilkie and Farris (1975) proposed that, in general, comparative advertisements will be more persuasive than their noncomparative counterparts. However, the bulk of empirical evidence has not supported this proposition. Although several studies have shown comparative ads can exert more positive effects than noncomparative ads on brand attitudes, purchase intentions, or purchase, comparative ads have also been found to reduce persuasion. Perhaps the most common finding has been that comparative and noncomparative ads produce very similar postcommunication (产品后续宣传) attitudes and intentions. Why have comparative and noncomparative ads so often been found to produce similar levels of persuasion? One rather obvious possibility is that null findings（无效）are simply the result of the fact that the particular comparative and noncomparative ads used in the test situation were truly equivalent in their persuasiveness. It may be, for instance, that the comparative copy communicated interbrand differences that were seen as trivial or unimportant. Similarly, failure to include adequate substantiation for the comparative claims could render them impotent (无力的，无效的). Even if comparative claims convey important differences with adequate substantiation, they may be no more effective than noncomparative claims when consumers are already aware of these differences. Another possibility, the one explored in this paper, is that the failure to detect persuasion differences between comparative and noncomparative ads may be the result of the types of measures used to test for such effects. Earlier investigations have often relied upon nonrelative or monadic (一元的) measures of postcommunication impressions (i.e., measures that assess beliefs, attitudes, and/or intentions toward the advertised brand without an explicit point of reference). However, it would appear that relative measures (i.e., measures that use the comparison brand as a point of reference in their assessment) are better suited for capturing the persuasive impact of comparative advertising. The rationale for this position is developed in the following sections.
One potentially important difference between comparative and noncomparative advertising is the ability of a comparative ad to encourage a particular point of reference during encoding of the information about the ad- vertised brand. Moorman (1990) points out that external reference points can enhance consumers' ability to process information as well as their comprehension of the information. As a result, consumers who lack the knowl- edge necessary to understand some information fully may benefit from the bench marks provided by reference information. External reference points may not only increase one's ability to extract meaning from a set of information, they may also affect the particular meaning extracted from the information. The presence of such reference points during processing may result in their becoming an integral part of the impressions which are formed. Consequently, consumers exposed to comparative ads which provide an explicit comparison brand should be more likely to form mental impressions of the advertised brand that are relative (to the comparison brand) in nature than they would following exposure to noncomparative ads.
题目
1. 开头那2个学者最同意下面哪个
答：comparative advertisements will be more persuasive than their noncomparative counterparts
2. 主旨题
答：an alternative explanation for “Why have comparative and noncomparative ads so often been found to produce similar levels of persuasion?” (对一个研究的品评)
3. Nonrelative 和 relative 对 postcommunication 作用的区别
答：without/with an explicit point of reference (Specifically point out the reference)
4. 为何研究的结果不对
答：the result of the types of measures used to test for such effects作者: selma 时间: 2010-11-17 16:13
1.4.2美国立法△
第一段：
有两个专家一个叫K，一个叫L，他俩意见很一致，说研究出来federal regulation是为big business interest服务的，受这些business利益的影响，才会制定相应对其有利的法案。
第二段：
一个however转折，说不对，其实senator也不是完全受business影响来制定法律的。其实也受public interest的影响。然后作者就举了例子说有关一个地方的铁路train的Federal Act, 虽然All but one of the businesses 都不同意修这个铁路，但是senator还是坚持，一年之后这个法案生效了。然后说这个铁路限制了三种不同的行业使用，其中有agriculture，XX，和XX。这个法案对这三种行业的利益影响各有不同，有个行业得到好处，有个没得到好处，有个行业有消极影响。
When is advertising effective and when is it not? This question has often stimulated heated debate between two camps in the world of marketing and advertising (Barry, 1987). According to one view, advertising is effective only if it sells. Thus, advertising effectiveness is assessed by investigating the relationship between advertising expenditures and brand sales (e.g., Little,1979). The other view stresses that advertising can satisfy its ultimate objective of affecting demand only by establishing a hierarchy of intermediate effects in its audience. Thus, an advertising message or campaign may be evaluated against the objective of establishing a hierarchy of effects up to any particular stage, not necessarily the stage of demand (e.g., Colley, 1961). A compromise position is, of course, that any message or campaign should be evaluated in terms of the entire hierarchy of effects, including sales effects (Urban and Hauser, 1980).
Many hierarchy-of-effects models have been advanced for advertising effectiveness (for an overview, see Barry, 1987). Each model in this paradigm has assumed a particular sequence of stages that consumers pass through until demand is affected. For instance, Colley's (1961) defining-advertising-goals-for measured- advertising-results (DAGMAR) model assumes a sequence of awareness, comprehension, conviction, and action, whereas McGuire's (1978) information-processing model (IPM) assumes a sequence of presentation, attention, comprehension, yielding, retention, and behavior. Two major criticisms have been raised for such traditional models in the hierarchy-of-effects paradigm. One is that they fail to consider the marketing situation in which an advertising message is transmitted or an advertising campaign is run and, particularly, the consumer audience at which the message or campaign is targeted. According to Ehrenberg's (1974) awareness-trial-reinforcement (ATR) model, for instance, repeated advertising may be effective in three successive stages of consumer behavior, gaining brand awareness, making a trial purchase, or stimulating and sustaining a repeat buyinghabit if prior experience was satisfactory. Whereas the traditional models present advertising effectiveness as a sequence of responses up to a particular stage in the hierarchy, the ATR model conceives it as a response at a particular stage in the hierarchy depending on the history of consumer behavior.
Another stage model that has been advanced as a challenge to the sequence models developed within the traditional view is Ray's (1973) dissonance-attribution hierarchy, which identifies the following three stages: brand purchase based on nonmedia or nonmarketing communication sources, attitude change based on experience with the brand purchased, and selective and biased learning of advertising communications. Thus, advertising may be effective only at the third stage by aiding the consumer in his or her purchase decision through dissonance reduction or self-attribution (also identified as reinforcement mechanisms by the ATR model).
It has been argued by Preston and Thorston (1984) that stage models do not apply to the same situation as the sequence models developed within the traditional view and therefore cannot be considered a challenge to those models. It will be argued here, however, that the stage models can be parsimoniously (极度俭省地,吝啬地) incorporated into a sequence model if such a model is generalized to represent situational dependency. Actually, it will be acknowledged that McGuire's (1978) IPM already adopts this generalized view on the hierarchy of effects. In its present state of development, however, the IPM remains vulnerable to the second major criticism raised regarding traditional models in the hierarchy-of-effects paradigm, which is that they are overly restrictive in assuming that cognitively complex changes in consumer attitudes are necessary for effective advertising. Under Krugman's (1965) low-involvement hierarchy, for instance, repeated advertising may induce nonverbalizable changes in brand perception that are sufficient to induce purchase. From this point of view, complex attitudinal changes do not occur prior to purchase in response to advertising but only after purchase on the basis of experience with the brand. This article will proceed by discussing a model according to which the enforcement of cognitively complex changes in consumer attitudes represents one out of two viable options for effective advertising.
Petty and Cacioppo's (1981, 1986) elaborauonqikelihood model (ELM) has been advanced as a general framework for the study of persuasion in the field of social psychology. With its application to advertising communications (Petty and Cacioppo, 1983; Petty et al., 1983), the model has obtained a great popularity in the field of consumer behavior. This section will provide a brief review of the model.
The ELM predicts changes in attitude toward an advertised brand, where an attitude refers to a global evaluation of the brand. The model identifies two distinct routes toward attitude change. One is the central route, along which the consumer changes his attitude on the basis of elaboration on arguments.
Here, arguments refer to message elements considered relevant for assessing the true merits of the advertised brand, whereas elaboration refers to the learning of arguments, the generation of thoughts about these arguments (cognitive responses), and the integration of these thoughts into one's attitude structure. The other is the peripheral route, along which the consumer may change his or her attitude on the basis of a variety of processes, for instance, through heuristic (启发式的) inference of brand quality from message elements, through association of message elements with the brand, or through mere exposure to the brand.
The ELM assumes that the probability of following the central route (elaboration likelihood) depends on whether the consumer wants to assess the true merits of the advertised brand (motivation) and whether be or she can assess its true merits (ability). High motivation and high ability are singly necessary and jointly sufficient conditions for a high probability of following the central route. In the case of low motivation and/or low ability to assess the true merits of the advertised brand, the ELM assumes a high probability of following the peripheral route (hereafter referred to as the reciprocity postulate). be less than highly (un)motivated and/or less than highly (un)able to assess the true merits of the advertised brand, the ELM assumes an elaboration-likelihood continuum. The probability of following the central route changes continuously with the level of motivation and ability (hereafter referred to as the continuity postulate). In conjunction with the reciprocity postulate, the continuity postulate implies that elaboration likelihood may range from a high probability of following the central route, through a 50-50 probability of following either the central or the peripheral route (see the "luck" factor depicted by Cacioppo
and Petty, 1989, p. 80), to a high probability of following the peripheral route. With respect to attitudinal changes in a consumer audience, then, the ELM predicts a main effect of argument quality under high elaboration likelihood, moderate main effects of argument quality and cue attractiveness under moderate elaboration likelihood, and a main effect of cue attractiveness under low elaboration likelihood.
The ELM further assumes that thoughts about arguments may be systematically biased against or in favor of the advertising claim (the biased-elaboration postulate). Initial attitudes toward the brand are assumed to be a major source of biased elaboration. One will be tempted to proargne or bolster a claim that is congruent with one's initial attitude and to counterargue a claim that is incongruent with one's initial attitude. Thus, attitudinal changes along the central route may be biased upward or downward, depending on the congruency or incongruency between the advertising claim and the initial attitude of the consumer.
Finally, the ELM assumes various consequences of the route followed toward attitude change. Attitudes changed along the central route are more persistent, more resistant to counterpersuasion, and more predictive of behavior than attitudes changed along the peripheral route.
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