Q25 to Q28: Jon Clark’s study of the effect of the modernization of a telephone exchange on exchange maintenance Line work and workers is a solid contribution (5) to a debate that encompasses two lively issues in the history and sociol-

16 ogy of technology: technological determinism and social constructivism. Clark makes the point that the char- (10) acteristics of a technology have a decisive influence on job skills and work organization. Put more strongly, technology can be a primary determi- nant of social and managerial organ- (15) ization. Clark believes this possibility has been obscured by the recent soci- ological fashion, exemplified by Braverman’s analysis, that emphasizes the way machinery reflects social (20) choices. For Braverman, the shape of a technological system is subordinate to the manager’s desire to wrest con- trol of the labor process from the workers. Technological change is (25) construed as the outcome of negoti- ations among interested parties who seek to incorporate their own interests into the design and configuration of the machinery. This position represents (30) the new mainstream called social con- structivism. The constructivists gain acceptance by misrepresenting technological deter- minism: technological determinists are (35) supposed to believe, for example, that machinery imposes appropriate forms of order on society. The alternative to constructivism, in other words, is to view technology as existing outside (40) society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization. Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivists by both theoretical and empirical arguments. Theoretically he (45) defines “technology” in terms of rela- tionships between social and technical variables. Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology to cold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery (50) is just scrap unless it is organized functionally and supported by approp- riate systems of operation and main-utside (40) society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization. Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivists by both theoretical and empirical arguments. Theoretically he (45) defines “technology” in terms of rela- tionships between social and technical variables. Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology to cold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery (50) is just scrap unless it is organized functionally and supported by approp- riate systems of operation and main-The alternative to constructivism, in other words, is to view technology as existing outside (40) society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization. Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivists by both theoretical and empirical arguments. Theoretically he (45) defines “technology” in terms of rela- tionships between social and technical variables. Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology to cold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery (50) is just scrap unless it is organized functionally and supported by approp- riate systems of operation and main-The alternative to constructivism, in other words, is to view technology as existing outside (40) society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization. Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivists by both theoretical and empirical arguments. Theoretically he (45) defines “technology” in terms of rela- tionships between social and technical variables. Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology to cold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery (50) is just scrap unless it is organized functionally and supported by approp- riate systems of operation and main-17 tenance. At the empirical level Clark shows how a change at the telephone (55) exchange from maintenance-intensive electromechanical switches to semi- electronic switching systems altered work tasks, skills, training opportuni- ties, administration, and organization of (60) workers. Some changes Clark attrib- utes to the particular way management and labor unions negotiated the intro- duction of the technology, whereas others are seen as arising from the (65) capabilities and nature of the technol- ogy itself. Thus Clark helps answer the question: “When is social choice decisive and when are the concrete characteristics of technology more important?” -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Q25: The primary purpose of the passage is to A. advocate a more positive attitude toward technological change B. discuss the implications for employees of the modernization of a telephone exchange C. consider a successful challenge to the constructivist view of technological change D. challenge the position of advocates of technological determinism E. suggest that the social causes of technological change should be studied in real situations Answer: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Q26: The information in the passage suggests that Clark believes that which of the following would be true if social constructivism had not gained widespread acceptance? A. Businesses would be more likely to modernize without considering the social consequences of their actions. B. There would be greater understanding of the role played by technology in producing social change. C. Businesses would be less likely to understand the attitudes of employees affected by modernization. D. Modernization would have occurred at a slower rate. E. Technology would have played a greater part in determining the role of business in society. Answer: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------The alternative to constructivism, in other words, is to view technology as existing outside (40) society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization.

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