which that 就近与跳跃修饰
which的用法
1、WHICH非限
1.which指代主句宾语：s+verb+o,which指代0（svo,which指代s一定错！）
2.which指代主句主语s:s+verb,which
（1）介词+which=连词
1.s+verb(+o)+prep+which
2.s+verb(+o),prep+which
区别
介词+that=名词
I will buy this book because from that I study a lot.(有because作为连接词，不用“介词+which”结构连接)
I will buy this book from which I study a lot.（无连接词，需要用“介词+which”结构连接）
which指代的三种情况：
1、紧邻修饰
一般情况下，“名词，which”中的which是就近修饰紧邻的名词的。这种例子多的不胜枚举。
一般例子就不用举了，只举个比较特别例子“A of B, which”（注：这里的of表示从属关系）
1，The commission proposed that funding for development of the park, which could be open to the public early next year, be obtained through a local bond issue.
2,Construction of the Roman Colosseum, which was officially known as the Flavian Amphitheater, began in A.D.69, during the reign of Vespasian, and was completed the Colosseum with a one-hundred-day cycle of religious pageants, gladitorial games, and spectacles.
Flavian Amphitheatre：福雷维安圆形剧场
3，In laboratory rats, a low dose of aspirin usually suffices to block production of thromboxane, a substance that promotes blood clotting, but does not seriously interfere with the production of prostacyclin, which prevents clotting.
thromboxane [生化]凝血噁烷，凝栓质，血栓素。阿斯匹林可以阻止血小板生成凝血恶烷
prostacyclin n.【生物化学、药物】环前列腺素，前列腺环素,
4，The survival of coral colonies, which are composed of innumerable tiny polyps living in a symbiotic relationship with brilliantly colored algae, is being threatened, experts say, not only by pollutants such as agricultural runoff, oil slicks, and trash, but also by dropped anchors, probing divers, and global warming.,
5，In attempting to solve the problems caused by a lowering of the price of oil, oil companies operating in the North Sea have taken a variety of approaches, which include reducing employment, using new technology to pump oil more efficiently from smaller fields, and finding innovative ways to cut the cost of building and operating platforms.,
这些例子都能说明从属关系“A of B，which”中的which就近修饰紧邻的名词B。但是需要注意的是，在“SVO,which”句型中，如果which指代S一定错误，which如果指代主语，这样使用:s+verb,which
2、跳跃修饰
在前有“核心词+介词、分词等修饰结构”或者插入语的情况下，which跳跃修饰前面的核心词，不能修饰紧邻的名词。
下面是几个例子：
From the bark of the paper birch tree the Menomini crafted a canoe about twenty feet long and two feet wide, with small ribs and rails of cedar, which could carry four persons or eight hundred pounds of baggage so light that a person could easily portage it around impeding rapids.
(A)baggage so light
(B) baggage being so light
(C) baggage, yet being so light
(D) baggage, and so light
(E) baggage yet was so light
答案：E
这句话的which离其所应该修饰的核心词canoe很远，中间隔了一个插入语，还隔了个介词结构about…，但只要知道核心词是canoe就能一目了然找到which应该指的是什么。这里不能修饰紧邻的名词cedar。
OG12-26
Emily Dickinson’s letters to Susan Huntington Dickinson were written over a period beginning a few years before Susan’s marriage to Emily’s brother and ending shortly before Emily’s death in 1886, outnumbering her letters to anyone else.
A,Dickinson were written over a period beginning a few years before Susan’s marriage to Emily’s brother and ending shortly before Emily’s death in 1886, outnumbering
B,Dickinson were written over a period that begins a few years before Susan’s marriage to Emily’s brother and ended shortly before Emily’s death in 1886, outnumber
C,Dickinson, written over a period beginning a few years before Susan’s marriage to Emily’s brother and that ends shortly before Emily’s death in 1886and outnumbering
D,Dickinson, which were written over a period beginning a few years before Susan’s marriage to Emily’s brother, ending shortly before Emily’s death in 1886, and outnumbering
E,Dickinson, which were written over a period beginning a few years before Susan’s marriage to Emily’s brother and ending shortly before Emily’s death in 1886, outnumber
这句话的which不能修饰其紧邻的名词Susan Huntington Dickinson，必须跳过介词结构to…，修饰核心词letter。
Unlike most other mergers in the utility industry, which have been driven by the need to save money and extend companies’ service areas, the merger of the nation’s leading gas company and leading electric company is intended to create a huge network for marketing the utilities in question as states open their utility markets to competition.
这句话的which不能修饰其紧邻的名词utility industry，必须跳过介词结构in…，修饰核心词merger。
In order to protect English manufacturers of woolen goods against both American and Irish competition, England passed the Woolens Act of 1698, which prohibited the export of woolen cloth beyond a colony's borders.
这里的which不能修饰紧邻的1698，必须跳过介词结构of 1968修饰前面的核心词act。
One pervasive theory explains the introduction of breakfast cereals in the early 1900s as a result of the growing number of automobiles, which led to a decline in horse ownership and a subsequent grain glut
Glut n. （商品）供过于求；大量
The Forbidden City in Beijing, from which the emperors ruled by heavenly mandate, was a site which no commoner or foreigner could enter without permission, on pain of death.
有人这里会说这不是A of B，which吗？which应该紧邻修饰啊？其实不然，因为of 1968和前面的那些A of B实际上用法不一样，这里是表示时间而不是“从属关系”。这个时间应该归在介词结构一类，所以要跳过。
on pain of违者以…论处
OG12SC107
Originally developed for detecting air pollutants, a technique called proton-induced X-ray emission, which can quickly analyze the chemical elements in almost any substance without destroying it, is finding uses in medicine, archaeology, and criminology.
(A) Originally developed for detecting air pollutants, a technique called proton-induced X-ray emission, which can quickly analyze the chemical elements in almost any substance without destroying it,
(B) Originally developed for detecting air pollutants, having the ability to analyze the chemical elements in almost any substance without destroying it, a technique called proton-induced X-ray emission
(C) A technique originally developed for detecting air pollutants, called proton-induced X-ray emission, which can quickly analyze the chemical elements in almost any substance without destroying it,
(D) A technique originally developed for detecting air pollutants, called proton-induced X-ray emission, which has the ability to analyze the chemical elements in almost any substance quickly and without destroying it,
(E) A technique that was originally developed for detecting air pollutants and has the ability to analyze the chemical elements in almost any substance quickly and without destroying the substance, called proton- induced X-ray emission,
答案（A）
答案中which发生跳跃指代，而且emission不处于介词短语中，这句话的which不能修饰其紧邻的名词emission，必须跳过分词修饰结构called …，修饰核心词technique。
注意这不是 SVO,which指代S了而是called proton-induced X-ray emission分词形式做后置修饰定语。
GWD-10-Q2: GWD-11-10
Marconi’s conception of the radio was as a substitute for the telephone, a tool for private conversation; instead, it is precisely the opposite, a tool for communicating with a large, public audience.
A,Marconi’s conception of the radio was as a substitute for the telephone, a tool for private conversation; instead, it is
B,Marconi conceived of the radio as a substitute for the telephone, a tool for private conversation, but which is
C,Marconi conceived of the radio as a tool for private conversation that could substitute for the telephone; instead, it has become
D,Marconi conceived of the radio to be a tool for private conversation, a substitute for the telephone, which has become
E,Marconi conceived of the radio to be a substitute for the telephone, a tool for private conversation, other than what it is,
答案为C。 B为啥不好？
因为选B会有which修饰telephone的错误，which应该修饰radio的。虽然which可以跳跃，但是逻辑上都可以完成从句动作的时候，应该是就近优先的，即使逻辑上完成不了从句的动作，跳跃也难保不会被判错，所以尽可能不跳跃修饰。GMAT题干中曾经用到可以跳跃的which，which跳跃是可以接受的，但是正确选项中很少出现过which跳跃修饰的情况，几乎都被其他结构替代了，这说明如果有可以替代的正确选项，那么尽量不要选跳跃修饰的which，因为可能有歧义。
C可以避免歧义，it一般不指代介词短语中的名词，优先指代主语，如果主语是人或者复数不能指代，则指代宾语，我不知道这题的radio还算不算宾语，但是至少你读出这个句子的时候，它确实相当于一个宾语，至少算一个核心词。
目前只见过A of B/A in B，which可以指代A，主要都发生在介词短语中。A选项可以我理解是因为CALLED从句表达的只是tech的另一个名字而已，本质上是同一东西，指代谁逻辑上都没有歧义。目前我找到的which强悍地跳跃，无视前面的名词的非常少，而且基本都不出现在选项中，都是未画线部分。但是，可以跳跃不是意味着必定跳跃，当which前面有很多个名词的时候，不是只要有一个正确，which就会自动地正确地指代到那个词的。相反，GMAT会优先判断这是修饰混乱。所以，最好不要有跳跃指代，如果非跳不可，最好是使用单复数区分which的指代词。
归纳一下，会发现which之所以要跳过介词结构是因为：其原本应该紧邻所修饰的核心名词，但是因为which的内容太长，而介词、分词等修饰结构又很短，所以把which结构后置了。
3、特别情况 A and B, which
这个which到底修饰谁呢？是A？是B？还是A and B？
我觉得这里正确修饰方法的原则只有一个：没有歧义。
如果A and B中的B为复数（Bs），which后面动词也是复数，which指代会有歧义，让人不知道which到底指的是什么。
As and Bs, which are (which指Bs? 或 which指As and Bs？)
A and Bs, which are (which指Bs？或 which指A and Bs？)
下面情况没有歧义：
如果A和B都是单数，which后面动词复数，没有歧义，which修饰A and B。
如果B是单数（不管A是单数还是复数），which后面动词也是单数，没有歧义，which修饰B。
如果B是复数（不管A是单数还是复数）则必须要用which together，没有歧义，这时which修饰A and Bs。
举两个例子：
The human nervous system bears a superficial resemblance to a telephone system both because the former carries information in the form of electrical impulses and because all of its neural pathways converge in the brain and spinal cord, which together form a kind of central exchange.
Unlike the shuttle and earlier spacecraft, which were capable of carrying sufficient power in fuel cells and batteries for their short flights, a permanently orbiting space station will have to generate its own electricity.
其实which的指代问题肯定不会只有这些，而且最准确判断which指代的方法是通过句子的逻辑意思，但是在实战中有个别GMAT题目的很难判断本意，所以准备写大方向性的小结还是必要的。
OG12-SC10
10. Carnivorous mammals can endure what would otherwise be lethal levels of body heat because they have a heat-exchange network which kept the brain from getting too hot.
(A) which kept
(B) that keeps
(C) which has kept
(D) that has been keeping
(E) having kept
答案B， In (A) and (C), which introduces a restrictive clause. Some writers follow the convention that which can only be used for nonrestrictive clauses, but insistence on this rule is controversial, and both (A) and (C) can be rejected on other grounds.
Scientists have observed large concentrations of heavy-metal deposits in the upper twenty centimeters of Baltic Sea sediments, which are consistent with the growth of industrial activity there.
(A) Baltic Sea sediments, which are consistent with the growth of industrial activity there
(B) Baltic Sea sediments, where the growth of industrial activity is consistent with these findings
(C) Baltic Sea sediments, findings consistent with its growth of industrial activity
(D) sediments from the Baltic Sea, findings consistent with the growth of industrial activity in the area
(E) sediments from the Baltic Sea, consistent with the growth of industrial activity there
波罗的海
答案D为啥A不对？
which是可以跳过介词短语或者插入语的，但是不能跳过谓语动词。“svo,which指代s一定错！！！”但这题中which跳跃多远都不对，这里WHICH是指代前面整个句子的意思，而这在GMAT中是一定错的。sediments are consistent with the growth of industrial activity there逻辑意思有错误，只有finding，result，means，forms之类的抽象名词才能be consistent with , 某个具体的东西不行。
that用法：
适用范围
（1）不定代词为先行词
（2）any , all, each, every, little, few, no, much, many为先行词
（3）“人+物”为先行词
序数词为先行词
最高级为先行词
例句：The boy and the bike that are in the room……
（4）the only, the very, the most为先行词（注意，the不可省略）
1.定语从句：
a.subject+verb.+object+that+verb.+object，
that就近指代修饰离that最近的名词
2.定语从句中出现后置定语（介词短语分词）S+verb+O+(prep+C)+that+verb.+object
S+verb+O+that+verb+O+(prep+c)
3.that不能指代“人物”
4,sth that …and that(that不可省略) OG85. Salt deposits and moisture threaten to destroy the Mohenjo-Daro excavation in Pakistan, the siteof an ancient civilizationthat flourished at the same time as the civilizations in the Nile Delta and the river valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates.
(A) that flurished at the same time as the civilizations
(B) that had flourished at the same time as had the civilizations
(C) that flourished at the same time those had
(D) flourishing at the same time as those did
(E) flourishing at the same time as those were
答案A
0G12-126 The use of lie detectors is based on the assumption that lying produces emotional reactions in an individual that, in turn, create unconscious physiological responses.
(A) that, in turn, create unconscious physiological responses
(B) that creates unconscious physiological responses in turn
(C) creating, in turn, unconscious physiological responses
(D) to create, in turn, physiological responses that are unconscious
(E) who creates unconscious physiological responses in turn
答案A，that跳跃一个介宾结构修饰reactions这题有意思的地方还在于E干扰选项,who紧跟在individual后面，出题机构现在变得很阴险喽,如果不去理解逻辑意思只是快速看语法修饰，很容易误选E
所以也验证了很多同学说的，现在语法比以前更倾向于从句子逻辑角度出题考
prep语法-6题that就近指代Aof B,that指代B
The list of animals that exhibits a preference of either using the right or the left hand (i.e., claw, paw, or foot) has been expanded to include the lower vertebrates.
(A) exhibits a preference of either using the right or the left hand (i.e., claw, paw, or foot) has been expanded to include
(B) exhibits the preference to use either the right or the left hand (i.e., claw, paw, or foot) has been expanded and includes
(C) exhibit a preference in either using the right or the left hand (i.e., claw, paw, or foot) has been expanded to include
(D) exhibit a preference for using either the right or the left hand (i.e., claw, paw, or foot) has been expanded to include
(E) exhibit the preference as to either using the right or the left hand (i.e., claw, paw, or foot) has been expanded and includes
这个that修饰谁呢？答案D！that是修饰animals 只有动物才会exhibit a preference of either using the right or the left hand ，list怎么会exhibits a preference of either using the right or the left hand 呢
GWD31-24-41.
In California, a lack of genetic variation in the Argentine ant has allowed the species to spread widely; due to their being so genetically similar to one another, the ants consider all their fellows to be a close relative and thus do not engage in the kind of fierce intercolony struggles that limits the spread of this species in its native Argentina.
A. due to their being so genetically similar to one another, the ants consider all their fellows to be a close relative and thus do not engage in the kind of fierce intercolony struggles that limits
B. due to its being so genetically similar the ant considers all its fellows to be a close relative and thus does not engage in the kind of fierce intercolony struggles that limit
C. because it is so genetically similar, the ant considers all its fellows to be close relatives and thus does not engage in the kind of fierce intercolony struggles that limits
D. because they are so genetically similar to one another, the ants consider all their fellows to be close relatives and thus do not engage in the kind of fierce intercolony struggles that limit
E. because of being so genetically similar to one another, the ants consider all their fellows to be a close relative and thus do not engage in the kind of fierce intercolony struggles that limits
答案D不是直接考that指代，它考到了谓语单复数问题，that这里的指代the kind of fierce intercolony struggles 名词词组,所以limit用单数.
because of 与due to问题记住because of 后面不能跟动词以及具有动词功能的动名词, 而due to=be caused by 基本上gmat不会选有due to的选项；due to means 'caused by', due to 只有在能使用caused by的情况下被用在句子里
The game was postponed due to rain. wrong
The game was postponed because of rain. correct
The game's postponement was due to rain. correct
Because of 和due to的一个相同点是它们之后只能加名词或名词性词组
that跳跃修饰
关于that引导定语从句的跳跃修饰：
1．N + 介词短语 + that
（1）N + 介词短语 + that中that跳跃修饰N
885-4-21. With its plan to develop seven and a half acres of shore land, Cleveland is but one of a large number of communities on the Great Lakes thatis looking to its waterfront as a way to improve the quality of urban life and attract new businesses.
(A) is looking to its waterfront as a way to improve the quality of urban life and attract
(B) is looking at its waterfront to improve the quality of urban life and attract
(C) are looking to their waterfronts to improve the quality of urban life and attract
(D) are looking to its waterfront as a way of improving the quality of urban life and attracting
(E) are looking at their waterfronts as a way they can improve the quality of urban life and attract
答案C，从逻辑意思上看，that应修饰communities
（2）N + 介词短语 + that中that就近修饰（例子就不举了，很常见）
2．A of B + that
（1）A of B + that中that指代B
Og10-1.The Wallerstein study indicates that even after a decade young men and women still experience some of the effects of a divorce occurring when a child.
(A)occurring when a child
(B)occurring when children
(C)that occurred when a child
(D)that occurred when they were children
(E)that has occurred as each was a child
答案为D；that就近指代a divorce;
（2）A of B + that中that指代A的：
Og10-168. Today, because of improvements in agricultural technology, the same amount of acreage produces double the apples that it has in 1910.
(A)double the apples that it has
(B)twice as many apples as it did
(C)as much as twice the apples it has
(D)two times as many apples as there were
(E)a doubling of the apples that it did
Choice B, the best answer, correctly uses the adverbial phrase twice as many... to modify the verb produces; properly employs many rather than much to describe a quantity made up of countable units (apples); and appropriately substitutes did for the understood produced to express the logically necessary past tense of produces. Choice A awkwardly substitutes the adjective double for twice; uses that without a clear referent; and misuses has to refer to events occurring in 1910. Choice C employs the incorrect much in a wordy construction and also misuses has. D is wordy and imprecise;... as there were in 1910 refers to all apples produced in 1910, regardless of location. E is illogical: since that refers to a doubling, E nonsensically asserts that the doubling occurred in 1910.
GWD 32-2
Written in ink or engraved by stylus, more than 2,000 letters and documents on wooden tablets excavated at the site of the old roman fort at Vindolanda in northern England are yielding a historical account of the military garrison in the first and second centuries thatare so vivid in their details about personal life as they are from Pompeii
A. are so vivid in their details about personal life as they ate
B. are as vivid in their details of personal life as those gathered
C. is as vivid in their detail about personal life as that gathered
D. is as vivid in its details of personal life as that gathered
E. is so vivid in its details of personal life as is that
选D
that指代a historical account of the military garrison, 说a historical account of the military garrison is as vivid in its details of personal life（像个人生活一样生动）as that gathered from Pompeli.
which/that跳跃修饰、修饰不当的判断标准
that,which皆可跳跃修饰，大部分跳跃修饰的情况是
n+介宾结构that
n+介宾结构，which,that，which跳过介宾结构修饰n
Where引导定语从句的跳跃修饰
225. Minnesota is the only one of the contiguous forty-eight states that still has a sizable wolf population. and where this predator remains the archenemy of cattle and sheep.
(A)that still has a sizable wolf population, and where
(B)that still has a sizable wolf population, where
(C)that still has a sizable population of wolves, and where
(D)where the population of wolves is still sizable;
(E)where there is still a sizable population of wolves and where
In choices A and C, the construction that still has ..., and where modifies Minnesota with clauses that are not gram matically parallel. In choice B, the omission of and illogically makes the where ... clause modify wolf population rather than Minnesota--that is, choice B says in effect that the wolf population is where the wolf remains the archenemy of cattle and sheep. Choice D is grammatically constructed, but it lacks a conjunction that establishes a logical relation between the clauses; since Minnesota as a grammatical subject is separated from the clause following the semicolon, the statement there need not even pertain to Minnesota. In E, the best choice, the parallel construction of where ... and where ... allows both clauses to modify Minnesota.
正确答案E中两个where并列，共同跳跃修饰Minnesota
四．Whose的跳跃修饰
大全-675 Studies show that young people with higher-than-average blood pressure and their families have a history of high blood pressure are more likely than others to develop a severe form of the condition.
(A) and their families have a history of high blood pressure
(B) whose families have a history of high blood pressure
(C) and a history of high blood pressure runs in the family
(D) whose families have a history of high blood pressure running in them（B）
(E) with a history of high blood pressure running in their family
正确答案为B，这里面的whose的修饰就是跃过with短语的限定直接修饰young people的
GWD26-Q24
According to United States census data, while there was about one-third of mothers with young children working outside the home in 1975, in 2000, almost two-thirds of those mothers were employed outside the home.
A.while there was about one-third of mothers with young children working outside the home in 1975, in 2000, almost two-thirds of those mothers were employed outside the home.
B.[font=]there were about one-third of mothers with young children who worked outside the home in 1975; in 2000, almost two-thirds of those mothers were employed outside the home
C.in 1975 about one-third of mothers with young children worked outside the home; in 2000, almost two-thirds of such mothers were employed outside the home
D.even though in 1975 there were about one-third of mothers with young children who worked outside the home, almost two-thirds of such mothers were employed outside the home in 2000
E.with about one-third of mothers with young children working outside the home in 1975, almost two-thirds of such mothers were employed outside the home in 2000
答案为C，D错在who worked outside 修饰children逻辑错误
但是，不是说如果定语从句前有介词短语，比如in 1998什么之类的，定语从句就可以跳跃修饰前面的名词
这里的with young children 可不可以看成一个介词短语，然后who ....跳跃修饰前面的名词mothers ？？
prep 2-29.Unlike many United States cities, where a river is no longer the focal point of urban life, the river in San Antonio winds through the middle of the business district, and the River Walk, or Paseo del Rio, is the city's most popular attraction.
(A) Unlike many United States cities, where a river is no longer the focal point of urban life, the river in San Antonio
(B) Unlike the river in many cities in the United States, which is no longer the focal point of urban life, in San Antonio the river
(C) Today the river in many cities in the United States is no longer the focal point of urban life, unlike San Antonio, where it
(D) In few United States cities today, a river is the focal point of urban life, but the river in San Antonio
(E) No longer do many cities in the United States have a river as the focal point of urban life, but in San Antonio the river
答案为E，never、on longer等否定词在句首需要倒装.我选了B，解释说B中which错误指代United States，但是有介词短语不是可以跳跃修饰吗，于是跳过两个介词短语in the United States和in many cities ，不就正确修饰the river 了吗？
B的开头为“Unlike the river(特指) in many cities in the United States”，而原文中则是“Unlike many United States cities, where a river（泛指）...”，且从意思上来看泛指更符合逻辑。此处的which跳跃指代产生了指代不清的后果，不能选B.
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B中which is no longer the focal point of urban life
D中a river is the focal point of urban life,
E中have a river as the focal point of urban life
无论B和D，简化一下都是a river is the focal point ，E中是have a river as the focal point
主系表结构，是要表达主语的属性的，本题中the focal point 不是river的属性，所以不能用主系表结构
a river is the focal point应该表达成a river locates in the focal point
换句话说the focal point 不是river的属性，而是river的状语. | 
