selma

2.1.10  beetle 甲虫△

第一段：

人们越来越多的使用B来了解古代的温度。

第二段：

B化石比较其他方法的优点，能够很快的反应出气候的变化并且不会因host受限。最后一句比较其与植物pollen的优点。相对于不能移动的花草，B有更大的活动自由，因此对于很小的气候波动，他都能及时地作出反应，因此，这也是B作为一个更好的测量标准的原因，因为P不能移动.........

第三段：

科学家如何通过b测定气候变化。

题目：
1.  为什么fossil要比plant来得好:
答： 是因为 plant或者pollen 在short term的时候不能很好的反映climate change. 而beetle 的反应比较快。

2.  最后一个paragraph的作用
答: 应该是Scientists 具体如何用beetle来测climate change.

3. 主题题
答：Present 一个科学方法which科学家们喜欢用



WHY BEETLES ARE GOOD ENVIRONMENTAL PROXIES
Beetle fossils are commonly preserved as disarticulated (脱节的) skeletal fragments (fig. 2) in organic sediments such as clays, peats （泥炭）, sands and silts (Porch & Elias, 2000). Beetles preserve well due to their robust nature and structural details can often be distinguished allowing them to be identified to species level. In most cases identification has revealed fossilised beetles to be extant species indicating a great degree of morphological（形态学的） constancy throughout the Quaternary（地质学第四季）. This constancy includes that of key characters, such as genitalia（生殖器）, used in the identification of species. As morphology does not appear to have evolved it is generally assumed that the physiological（生理学的） requirements of beetles have also remained constant.

Evidence to support this assumption exists in the fact that the composition of beetle communities has, like morphology, remained relatively constant throughout the Quaternary and that host-specific phytophagus species can be sometimes be found in association with macrofossils of their host plant. Due to this observed constancy and the ectothermic （变温的）nature of beetles – and thus their reliance on environmental conditions – beetle fossils can therefore make excellent indicators of paleoenvironment (古生物环境的).

HISTORY OF FOSSIL BEETLE PALEOENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTIONS
The first climate and environmental reconstruction using beetle fossils was published by Coope. Since this time beetle fossils have been increasingly used for reconstructing past environments and the associated climate. Initially this work was restricted to the United Kingdom but soon spread to continental Europe and North America. Since then the number of studies utilizing beetle remains to reconstruct the paleoenvironment has continued to increase, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere, but also in South America and recently there has been discussion of the potential for this research in Australia. In 2002 the first New Zealand study using beetle fossils to reconstruct paleoclimate and paleoenvironment was completed proving that this technique is usable in New Zealand and laying the groundwork for this study.


While the use of beetle fossils for paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental reconstruction has increased over the last four decades it is still little used when compared to other biological proxies (代替物，指标), and in New Zealand palaeoenvironmental analysis is dominated by palynology (孢粉学) even though the flora of New Zealand is temperature-tolerant making quantification of palaeo climate difficult. Other methods of environmental and climatic reconstruction used in New Zealand are tree rings, phytoliths, aerosolic quartz influx, glacial equilibrium-line estimates, speleothems and diatoms

ADVANTAGES OF FOSSIL BEETLES OVER OTHER BIOLOGICAL PROXIES
Fossil beetle analysis has a number of advantages over other biological proxies such as pollen. Beetles are the most diverse group of organisms filling a large range of ecological roles and habitats from deserts to rainforests to the littoral（海滨的） zone. Beetles, and insects in general, respond rapidly to environmental change by dispersal（分散）, rather than undergoing speciation (物种形成), and fossils are generally identifiable to species level in contrast to New Zealand palynological studies where some genera (类,属) contain species with different ecological requirements, but with indistinguishable pollen. Predatory and scavenging beetles are able to take advantage of recently modified areas (along with pioneer plant species) before the trees and shrubs with similar climatic requirements. Trees and shrubs can therefore lag behind the actual period of climatic change and the resultant spread of beetles. This ability to rapidly respond to climatic change has also revealed short-term climate fluctuations that are not observed in the pollen record. Beetles fossils also avoid the problem of contamination of the local pollen rain (and hence local climate signal) by long-distance wind dispersed pollen.


Until the development of the Mutual Climatic Range (MCR) by Atkinson et. al. (1987) studies using beetle fossils were, like palynology, predominantly qualitative in nature. MCR is a method of quantifying paleoclimate and has further increased the usefulness of beetle fossils in reconstructing the past climate of the Quaternary. This quantitative method has enabled studies of beetle fossils to be compared to, or combined with, other proxy(有代表性的) data to provide a more complete paleo climatic and paleo environmental reconstruction.

MCR uses the modern distribution of a species found within a fossil beetle assemblage to construct a climate envelope for that species. This is based on the observation that the contemporary distribution of a beetle species is seen to measure its climatic tolerances. Only predators and scavengers are used to calculate MCR as the distribution of some herbivorous species may be limited by the range of a host plant rather than by direct climatic influences. The climate envelopes of all applicable species in the assemblage are overlapped to find the mutual intersection of the climatic ranges. This provides a quantitative measure of the paleoclimate at the time of the assemblage deposition. While providing a quantitative measure of temperature MCR has been found to underestimate maximum temperatures (TMAX) and overestimate minimum temperatures (TMIN) in extremely cold environments. TMIN can also be underestimated in areas with milder winters. However these errors can be corrected for using regression equations. Currently these equations have been calibrated for Europe and North American sites. The recent work by Marra(2002) has also formulated a method of establishing quantitative measures of paleoclimate for the smaller datasets normally extracted from New Zealand sites.

Herbivorous beetle species, while excluded from MCR analysis due to their potential relationship to host-plants, are extremely useful in paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Some phytophagus beetle species, such as some scolytids (bark beetles), are restricted in their distribution to certain species of trees. When discovered in a fossil assemblage these beetle species therefore indicate that the required host-plant was present at the study site at the time of deposition. The application of phytophagus beetle fossils for this purpose is possible in a New Zealand context as previously shown by Marra.

selma

2.1.12 热带雨林植物多样性△

第一段

热带雨林deversity的原因，提出了3种。

解释1）因为食草动物给植物物种带来的生存压力导致物竞天择，为了防止被eater吃了，所以要不断的变化发展，产生新的种类以保护自己，从而导致植物产生新的变化，互相的作用（interact）使它们变化多样；（负态度）（Natural Selection）

解释2）因为冰河时期地质的变迁导致孤立的小范围物种群的形成。冰河时期，降雨减少，地球被分成一块一块，这块地就是refugee（避难地），物种繁荣，后来演变成为热带雨林群，讲是最近的那一次北半球的ice age，使得雨林diminish了，然后arid area使得跟多的物种被merge到雨林里了；（负态度）（Ice Age）

解释3）因为地震地质运动，火山等导致。作者对前两个找到反驳观点，第三点没有，则最可能是原因。（不负不正态度）（地震）


第二段

最后作者指出对于1和2解释，都有相应的证据或原因给出反对，而第三种由于暂时没有反对的证据出现，而被植物学家所接受。

题目：

1. 关于问"refuge"理论的infer题：
答：应该选“不同的refuge有不同的plant”那个选项。有个易混的选项是“refuge的merge导致了雨林里的植物开始diversify”，看似很像其实不对。因为文章的原文是：小块refuge先生长植物，然后再merge形成雨林，这样雨林里的植物就更diversify了，其意就是refugee的植物是不同的。

2. 问主题
答：介绍不同的理论about ecosystem phenomena （不选：理论in dealing with ecosystem situation)

3．问的第一种theory说产生plant diversity的原因。
答：Natural Selection（因为animal eaters were evolved to counter the self-protecting mechanism of plant, 所以plant也得进化）。

4.．第一个解释这里考了一个逻辑题，类比关系。