一、平行结构（比重最大，超过20%）

二、主谓一致

三、比较结构

四、同位语从句及定语从句

五、表原因词汇

六、独立主格

一、
平行结构：(比重超过20%)

a)
具体JJ体现：

l
and/or/but

l
not only…but also…

l
both…and

l
Assume that ….and that…

l
考察方式：单独考察平行结构 大平行套小平行 和其他重要考点混合考察（注意划线和不划线的平行。）

l
Assume that ….and that…

b)
平行考点相关语法点整理：

1.
not only…but also：首先Not only…..but (also)表示的关系是递进,
其中also可以省略……….But/but also表示的是转折.

not only ...but also表示并列，不能表示转折，不要有先入为主的感觉认为not only...but also必须一起出现。单独出现but also是可能的。

1)
在正常语序中: not only … but also 应连接两个相对称的并列成分。

在正常语序中: 短语本身不可以加入其它成份，比如变成：not only...but it also...是错误的（因为破坏了平衡）。

2)
not only … but also 连接两个主语时，谓语动词要和与其最近的主语保持人称和数的一致。

3)
not only … but also 不能用在否定句中。

4)
not only … but also 连接两个分句，并且 not only 位于句首时，第一个分句中的主语和谓语要部分倒装。（此时短语部分可以加入其他成分）

2.
简单动名词不能和复杂动名词（THE）平行。且只有复杂动名词才能动作名词平行。

3.
注意大平行中有小平行，而且平行结构最后一个item之前要有and 连接t233

4.
需要用平行结构的短语：rather than，instead of..，as …，or .. not x but (rather) y，more x than y, the same to x as to y, as well as, besides, unlike

5.
曼哈顿摘抄

Parallelism: Concrete Nouns and Action Nouns

We can divide nouns into two categories:

1). Concrete nouns refer to things, people, places, and even time periods or certain events.

Rock, continent, electron, politician, region, holiday, week

2). Action nouns refer to actions, as their name implies. They are often formed from verbs:

Eruption, pollution, nomination, withdrawal, development, change, growth

To maintain logic parallelism, avoid making concrete nouns and action nouns parallel.

Unfortunately, the distinctions do not end there! –ing forms of verbs can also be used as nouns to indicate actions. –ing verb forms used as nouns are called Gerunds. Gerund Phrases are divided into 2 categories as well:

A). Simple Gerunds Phrases

They are “Nouns on the Outside, Verbs on the Inside.” That is, the phrase acts as a noun, but inside the actual phrase, the words are arranged as if they follow a verb.

E.g. Tracking satellites accurately is important for the space agency.

B). Complex Gerunds Phrases

Complex Gerund Phrases are “Nouns Through and Through”. The –ing gerund form is made fully into a noun; in fact, it is often preceded by articles (a, an, or the) or adjectives. The object is put into an of- prepositional phrase (the running of marathons) or placed in front of the -ing form (marathon running). Complex gerund phrases may sometimes sound less natural than simple gerund phrases.

E.g. The accurate tracking of satellites is important for the space agency.

On the GMAT, simple gerund phrases are never parallel to complex gerund phrases.

Of the two types of gerund phrases, only complex ones can be parallel to action nouns.

In any list of action nouns, always choose the complex gerund phrase (often with articles and the word of) over the simple gerund phrase.

Also, if an appropriate noun for a particular verb already exists in English, then avoid creating a complex gerund phrase. Instead, use the pre-existing action noun.

Wrong: The rebels demanded the withdrawal of government forces from disputed regions and the releasing of certain political prisoners.

Right: The rebels demanded the withdrawal of government forces from disputed regions and the release of certain political prisoners.

In brief, there are 3 categories of nouns:

1. Concrete Nouns

2. Action Nouns & Complex Gerunds

3. Simple Gerunds(Verbs on the Inside)

Do not mix these categories.

What Else Is Considered Parallel

1. Working Verbs: Only working verbs are parallel to other working verbs.

E.g.: The plant both exceeded outputs targets and ran more smoothly than ever.

2. Infinitives: In general, only make infinitives parallel to other infinitives. The to can be omitted in the second infinite (and all the rest), unless there is a parallel marker before the first infinitive.

E.g.:

Wrong: It is critical to suspend activities, to notify investors, and say nothing.

Right: It is critical to suspend activities, notify investors, and say nothing.

Right: It is critical to suspend activities, to notify investors, and to say nothing.

Right: It is critical either to suspend activities or to notify investors.

3. Adjectives, Past Participles, and Present Participles (used as adjectives)

E.g.1
A mastodon carcass, thawed only once and still fresh, is on display.

E.g.2
Only a few feet wide but spanning a continent, the railroad changed history.

4. Clauses

Only clauses starting with the same word should be made [url=]parallel[/url][url=#_msocom_1][D1][/url] . In general, clauses should not be made parallel to anything besides another clause.

Keep these categories straight, together with the noun categories.

Common Parallelism Categories

Noun
Other

1. Concrete Nouns
1. Working verb

2. Action Nouns & Complex Gerunds
2. Infinitives

3. Simple Gerunds
3. Adjectives & Participles

4. Clauses

[url=#_msoanchor_1][D1][/url]这一条好像不一定成立。同等性质的句子应该都可以，how 引导和when引导应该是可以并列的

一、
主谓一致/单复数考点：

a)
具体JJ体现：

l
俩形容词修饰一个名词（易误判“真主”）

l
名词后面插入同位语和谓语隔开

l
后接定语从句修饰 注：目前来看主谓一致部分考察倾向于考察“就前一致” 对于“倒装结构”考察不重，但是也要 注意谨防犯错。

b)
相关知识点整理（曼哈顿摘抄）：

1. Subject & Verb Must Both Exist

If a sentence is missing the subject or the verb, the sentence is a fragment.

①The sentence does not contain a working verb

②The sentence starts with a Connecting Word and contains no Main Clause

2. Subject& Verb Must Make Sense Together

3. Subject& Verb Must Agree In Number

The GMAT hides the subject in a few ways. The most common way is to insert words between the subject and the verb. You must learn to eliminate these Middlemen words to reveal the subject.

Furthermore, the GMAT often puts a significant number of words in front of the subject you want. You have to “skip the Warmup” that comes before the subject you are looking for.

There are a few common types of Middlemen& Warmups:①Prepositional Phrases②Subordinate Clauses③Other Modifiers (Present Principles& Past Principles)

4. And VS. Additive Phrases

The words “and” can unite two or more singular subjects, forming a compound plural subject.

Additive Phrases (Such as: along with, in addition to, as well as, accompanied by, together with, including) do not form compound subjects. Rather, additive phrases function as modifiers and therefore cannot change the number of subject.

5. Or, Either… or…, Neither…, nor…

Find the noun nearest to the verb, and make sure that the verb agrees in number with the noun.

Note: When the words “either” or “neither” are in a sentence alone, they are considered singular and take only singular verb.

6. Collective Nouns: Almost Always Singular

People: agency, army, audience, class, committee, crowd, orchestra, team

Items: baggage, citrus, equipment, fleet, fruit, furniture

单数名词指代一个群体，谓语动词用单数。

7. Indefinite Pronouns: Usually Singular

An indefinite Pronoun is not specific about the thing to which it refers.

The following indefinite pronouns are considered singular and require singular verb:

anyone, anybody, anything no one, nobody, nothingeach, every someone, somebody, somethingeveryone, everybody, everything whatever, whoevereither, neither (may require a plural verb if paired with or/ nor)

There are, however, 5 indefinite pronouns that can be either singular or plural depending on the context of the sentence.

SANAM = Some, Any, None, All, Most/ Many

Generally, of- prepositional phrases should be ignored. The SANAM pronouns are exceptions to this rule. You should look at the noun object of the of- phrase to determine the number of the subject.

Note: 1. “No one” is always singular, while “none” can technically be either singular or plural.

2. Each/ Every: Each of my friends is clever.
//My friends each are clever.

8. Quantity Words and Phrases

In many idiomatic expressions that designate quantities or parts, such as “a number of”, the subject of the sentence is in an of- prepositional phrase. These expressions provide the exception to the rule that the subject cannot be in a prepositional phrase. We have seen the SANAM pronouns as examples of this phenomenon. Other examples include fractions and percents.

The word “majority, minority, and plurality” are either singular or plural, depending on their context. If you want to indicate the many individual parts of the totality, use a plural verb. If you want to indicate the totality itself, then use a singular verb form.

9. Subject Phrase and Clauses: Always Singular

Sometimes the subject of a sentence is an –ing phrase or even a whole clause. This sort of subject is always singular and requires a singular verb form.

10. Flip it!

The GMAT occasionally attempts to confuse you by inverting the order and placing the subject after the verb. So, pay attention to it!

1.
E.g.1: Near the buildings sits a lonely house, inhabited by squatters.

E.g.2: There are a man and a woman at the bus stop.

E.g.3: Pong is a classic game from which have descended may current computer pastimes.

一、
比较结构（12月机经考点）

a)
具体JJ体现：

l
like/as 选项中出现similar to

l
compare to/ with

l
not so much…as…

l
more…than(考察比较结构的省略)(is more useful as a tool to……for……than as，有的选项后面没有as，有的前面表达方法是a more useful tool，注意区别 )

b)
相关知识点整理

总纲：比较中是否要补出动词，一切看是否有歧义。但是当省略了也没有歧义的时候，补出和不补出动词在很多时候就不是绝对性的判断标准只能用于相对性的比较。

1.
比较结构as adj. a noun. as... ：

as....as之间是可以加 adj+noun的，不过好像只限于几种形式(张振邦)：

as+adj.+不定冠词+单数可数+as
I haven't seen as old a car as this for years.

as+adj.+零冠词+不可数名词+as

as+adj.+零冠词+复数可数名词+as I don't smoke as expenesive cigarettes as those.

2.
as adj. (a) noun. as = (a) noun. as adj. as，其中第一个as是adv.

3.
对主谓宾全的句型
主语比较：  A do sth  than B do.（AB为对等名词，加do是为了显示这是一个可以发出动作的名词，因而确定是主语，进而确定是主语对比）
介宾比较 A do sth of C1 by D1 than of C2 by D2.（C1C2，D1D2对等名词）
宾语比较 A do C1 than C2.(C1C2为对等名词）
状语比较A do sth than usual/everbefore/people expected(直接加状语）
ETS就这几下子，原则就是清楚地指示什么跟什么比。

4.
句型只有主谓，没有宾语的句子。按照这个原理，对下一种句型只有主谓，没有宾语的句子，因为没有宾语，只可能有主语比较，因而不需要重复do来确认这是一个可发出动作的主语，所以其比较形式如下：
I eat faster than you.注意与下句区别
I eat apple faster than you do
如果写成 I eat apple faster than you 按ETS的理解，从语法上就变成我吃苹果比吃你快，成了宾语比较。逻辑上显然不通。

5.
AS族的比较大同小异，as 可单独引导比较，也可以复合成as many as, as hard as 等形式，但ETS宗旨不变，如
Sand road costs twice as many to build as to manintain(类似于介宾比较）
Sand road costs twice as many to build as stone road do(主语比较,）
Sand road costs the govement twice as many to build as the residents.(宾语比较）
ETS考过AS比较的习惯用法（不受上述限制，如下）
AS poor as they are, they can not afford a car.
They have 800million students, as many as have enrolled in our school.
(注意以上都是用逗号隔开的句子，AS在这里的作用更类似连词，连接一个主句和一个从句）

注意AS有时不表比较的如as you word hard, you will pass the exam.表原因了。

6.
There be 句型等同于一般的主谓宾俱全的句型
OG89
There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as there were four years ago(主语比较)
There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American  four time as many as  DVD player(宾语比较)
There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as  for school teachers.(介宾比交)
There is one PC for every 32 pupils in American four time as many as  in china(介宾比较)

7.

（曼哈顿摘抄）：

Comparisons

Comparisons are a form of parallelism that deserve special attention. As the name indicates, comparisons compare two parts of the sentence.

To spot GMAT comparisons, you must first learn certain signal words or phrases. Once you find a comparison, identify the two parts of the sentence that are being compared to each other. Finally, ensure that these two parts are truly parallel, both structurally and logically.

The most important comparison signals are like, unlike, as, and than. Other common comparison signals are shown below:

Like, unlike, more than, less than, faster than, different from, in contrast to/with, as, as (adj.) as, as much as, as little as, as fast as, the same as

Like vs. As

Like is a preposition. This means that like must be followed by nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases. Never put a clause or prepositional phrase after like! Note that like can be followed by gerunds. (-ing forms used as nouns)

On the other hand, as can be either a preposition (appearing with a noun) or a conjunction (appearing with a clause). You can correctly use as to compare two clauses.

Keeping Comparison Parallel

Comparisons must be logically parallel. That is, they must compare similar things.

Wrong: Frank’s build, like his brother, is broad and muscular.

Right: Frank’s build, like his brother’s, is broad and muscular.

Right: Frank’s build, like that of his brother, is broad and muscular.

Right: Frank, like his brother, has a broad and muscular build.

Comparisons must be structurally parallel. That is, they must have a similar grammatical structure.

Wrong: I like to run through forests more than I enjoy walking through crowds.

Right: I like running through forests more than I enjoy walking through crowds.

Omitted Words

As we have already seen, you can often omit words in the second part of comparison. Possessive nouns provide one opportunity.

You can also omit units, verbs, and even whole clauses from the second term, as long as there is no ambiguity:

Right: Whereas I drink 2 quarts of milk a day, my friend drinks 3.

Right: I walk faster than Brain.

Right: I walk as fast now as when I was young.

In general, you should put in the omitted words or appropriate Helping Verbs only if you need to remove ambiguity.

Ambiguous: I like Cheese more than Yvette.

Right: I like Cheese more than Yvette do.

Right: I like Cheese more than I do Yvette.

However, the GMAT occasionally allows unnecessary Helping Verbs.

Right: Apples are healthier to eat than caramels are.

So, do not throw out an answer choice simply because of an unnecessary Helping Verb in the second term of comparison.

Comparative and Superlative Forms

When comparing two things, use the Comparative Form of an adjective or adverb. When comparing more than two things, use the Superlative Form of an adjective or adverb.

Do not compare an adverb that ends in –ly by changing the ending to –er. Instead, add more.

Wrong: Adrian runs quickly. He runs quicker than Jacob.

Right: Adrian runs quickly. He runs more quickly than Jacob.

However, some adverbs that do not end in –ly are made into comparison by adding –er.

Right: Adrian runs fast. He runs faster than Jacob.

Do not use a comparative adjective unless you have a than in the sentence.

Wrong: With winter coming, I will have higher energy bills.

[We do not allow implied comparison on GMAT]

Wrong: I will have higher energy bills over last year.

Right: I will have higher energy bills than last year.

一、
同位语从句及定语从句（12月机经考点）

a)
具体JJ体现：

l
抽象名词（belief）+ that
SVO

l
定语从句考点和主谓一致混合考察

l
平行结构考点在此处也有体现（尤其注意that从句平行时本质的判断）

b)
相关知识点整理

同位语：同位语由unrestricted adjectival phrase而来，同位语的修饰对象：名词或名词短语或代词

同位结构的特征

a)
起修饰语的作用,一般用于修饰名词或名词短语；同位语解释的是整个名词，不是名短中某个词，故同位语不是核心词修饰。

b)
必须对其修饰对象具有解释力；

c)
位置：名词前或名词后，一般在修饰对象的后面；

d)
不影响主谓一致（谓语应该和主语保持一致，而不是和同位语）；

e)
同位结构中名词的数可以和其修饰对象的数不一致。

同位结构的形式

1)
名词性同位语：名词解释名词。（以下三种，第二个n.后可以跟修饰词）

i.
N., n.;

ii.
n., a/an + n.或a/an + n., n.;

iii.
the + n., n.（前面的the + n 为同位结构）

2)
内容具体化同位结构：抽象名词（theory/evidence/belief/principle）+that 从句，that从句对抽象名词进行具体化解释（注意与of 结构的区别），that从句部分才是同位语。(that是小品词，连词，和一般的名词性that分句中的that一样)

3)
概括性同位语：用一个概括性的名词去概括前面的修饰对象：短语/句子，n. + that / doing / done...

一、
表原因词汇（12月机经）

a)
知识点整理：

1.
语法上来说只有the reason is that是正确的，但是注意这种说
法是不简洁的，直接使用because比较好。此外due to 也是表原因但是一定注意其使用方式有点像形容词。
所以往往出现的时候以 is/was due to的形式出现，即常作表语。 Since用来表原因时，更加应该谨慎，因为其有另外一重意思
“自从” since she spoke it

2.
其他条件都满足的情况下，一般表示原因用because，当后面的原因是推测的时候用for最合适，当后面的原因是大家看到就知道(顺其自然)时用as/since最合适。

二、
独立主格（12月机经）

a)
具体JJ体现：

l
重点考察了特殊形式独立主格 也就是each为独立主格逻辑主语

l
加强特殊形式独立主格的学习，其考察点 设置方式应该有所了解

b)
相关知识点整理

1、独立主格结构的形式（摘自白勇语法）

（1）一般独立主格：名词+名词，名词+形容词，名词+分词，名词+介词

（2）逻辑紧密型独立主格：with+名词+名词/形容词/分词/介词

（3）强调型独立主格：each+名词+名词/形容词/分词/介词

独立主格本身无谓语，而依附于主句谓语，起状语作用，放在句首或句尾。

GMAC 很喜欢独立主格结构作为正确答案，切记。

2、独立主格结构是由一个名词或代词（作为该短语结构的逻辑主语），加上一个分词、形容词、副词、
动词不定式或介词短语（作为该短语结构的逻辑谓语）构成.
独立主格结构放在句首或句尾，起状语作用，表伴随原因﹑条件﹑状态等

1)一般独立主格,与主句形成松散的逻辑关系，与主句描述动作、状态同时发生或存在，形式为:

n．+ n.; n. + -ed/ing 形式; n. + 介词短语;n. +形容词短语

2)with 型独立主格,与主句形成紧密的逻辑联系,形式为:

由“with＋宾语＋宾补”构成的复合结构，在句中可作状语，表示伴随，修饰邻近分句主语，with后面宾语为与主语相关的东西。这一结构中的宾语补足语
可由现在分词、过去分词、形容词、副词或介词短语等来充当。

例：Visitors to the park have often looked into the leafy canopy and seen monkeys sleeping on the branches, with arms and legs hanging like socks on a clothesline.

在 with 复合结构中，宾语和宾补之间形成逻辑上的主谓关系。当这种主谓关系表现为主动语态时，用现在分词；当这种主谓关系表现为被动语态时，用过去分词；当这种主谓关系表示将来意义时，用不定式；当这种主谓关系表示伴随意义时，用现在分词或副词。

3)each型独立主格,强调句尾名词,形式为:

句子 + 复数名词结尾, each + 介词短语/形容词短语/-ed形式/-ing 形式。

注意点：独立主格并不包括“with + n. + 定语从句”和“n. + 定语从句”的形式，这个形式做的是非限定性修饰前面名词的定语，因为这个形式就相当于n, with + n.，或者是n., n. + that概括性同位语。

3、同位语与独立主格最主要的区别在于：同位语描述的是事物的具体内容、特征，是一种解释；独立主格则是表示一种伴随状态，描述与所描述分句同步发生的事情。

1.
代词指代（those还是that）,指代单数、复数

2.
develop into/from

3.
El Nino (an irregularly recurring flow of unusually warm surface waters from the Pacific Ocean toward and along the western coast of South America that prevents upwelling of nutrient-rich cold deep water and that disrupts typical regional and global weather patterns)

4.
Predict后面只有加名词或动名词。即predict sth. 或者predict doing sth.

5.
Hire sb to do/ be hired to do

6.
Method of/way that

7.
The number of employees and companies and the amount of gross receipts

8.
Winds blowing from...，deposit the dust and xxx of Africa， which help

9.
Apply用法： apply sth to sth/

10.
Caution用法： (in?)that

11.
population用于可数名词，全体居民，人口，一些科学文章中常用，可以互换单复数。用于不可数时时表示人口密度，动物聚居的密度。

12.
that 从句时，插入语的位置问题

l
We decided, in view of his special
circumstances, that we would admit him for a probationary period.

l
She told her parents that, due to her illness, she would be able to go to school tomorrow.

关键是看你的插入语主要修饰that后面的部分还是that前面的部分。

第一句，in view of his special
circumstances表示的使我们下决定的背景情况，因此直接放在decided后面用来修饰decided。

第二句，due to her illness，表明的是she would be able to go to school tomorrow的原因，因此due to her illness是和that后面的句子关系紧密。

JJ: Research found that , among other..., parts of the C xxx,  .....

13.
and连接同一主语的两个分句，第二个主语可以省略。

14.
A. willing and able to do B. willing and capable of doing选了A 因为Willing 也用to do

15.
Aim: at/ to do (aim in 没有吧)

16.
Despite (介词)+名词/doing

17.
collapsed, damaged, or destroyed

18.
一些政策要被turned down 被动不一定排除，注意！

19.
Costly. adj:形容词性

20.
The reason is that

21.
冒号：对前面提出的信息起补充说明作用，冒号前的句子一定要能独立成句；需要解释说明的成分一定要离解释成分近一点。

破折号，用的比较广泛和灵活，有双的，也有单的

22.
疑似原题：
Scientists have recently discovered that the ultrathin, layered construction of a butterfly’s wings, the same as the one making some butterflies shimmer via the phenomenon of iridescence, are enabling the insect to control how much heat energy is absorbed by its wings and how much is reflected away.

A wings, the same as the one making some butterflies shimmer via the phenomenon of iridescence, are enabling

B wings, which is the same one that makes some butterflies shimmer via the phenomenon of iridescence, that also enables

C wings is the same as the one that makes some butterflies shimmer via the phenomenon of iridescence, enabling

D wings－ the same construction that makes some butterflies shimmer via the phenomenon of iridescence － also enables

E wings― of the same construction that makes some butterflies shimmer via the phenomenon of iridescence ― also enable

ultrathin是形容词
超薄的

23.
Unlike the many winter greens that have tough leaves and thus require a lengthy cooking time, those of escarole need little or no cooking.

(A)
many winter greens that have tough leaves and thus require a lengthy cooking time, those of escarole need

√(B)many winter greens that have tough leaves and thus require a lengthy cooking time, escarole needs

(C)tough leaves of many winter greens and that they require for a lengthy cooking time, escarole needs

(D)tough leaves of many winter greens and the requirement that they have a lengthy cooking time, those of escarole need

(E)lengthy cooking time required by the many winter greens with tough leaves, escarole needs