语法规则整理
一、
语法规则grammar
(一)句子结构... 2
(二)主谓一致:... 4
(三)动词形式... 5
(四)比较结构... 6
(五)平行结构... 6
(六)修饰语... 7
二、
词的使用choice of word
(一)标准书面用语准则... 7
(二)习惯搭配... 8
(三)词组补充... 9
(四)避免词与词的语义重复... 10
三、
逻辑表达 sentence construction
(一)表达的简洁性... 10
(二)逻辑表达的合理性与单一性... 10
回复可见
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标点符号的正确使用:可以帮助初步判断排除错误项。
例如:主谓间无任何插入语时不可用逗号隔开。(分辨选项有帮助)
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句子结构完整性:
What从句不能缺少谓语:What X does/is sth 是一个完整结构
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副词不能代替连词:
Then, also, therefore, however等副词不能代替and起连词作用。
错误:……., also…….
……..,then…….
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宾语从句:
介词后接what, who等疑问词,不接that引导的宾语从句,但有例外:but that, except that(=but that) ,in that(=because)
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表语从句:
The reason is………….(不能用reason is because……!)
The reasons for sth are X1, X2 and X3.
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特殊结构:
两个强调结构
If any:插入成分,强调名词短语Many………, if not more so,
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倒装结构:
So too +倒装句;
Never, no longer, rarely, hardly, few, little ,not until +部分倒装
注意 倒装结构中如
There be A and B ,就近原则:A 决定be动词单复数;
全倒装中:谓语后面的名词是主语,单复数与其一致;
--thing,--one,--body(all things, something, anyone, nobody等):形容词放在后,倒装
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As结构:
1.
GMAT中出现最多的形式是表示动作相似性。与主句谓语相同时,as从句的谓语用do代替;句型结构有Just as……,+主句;just as….., so+主句; just as….., so too+倒装;
2.
As when: as 代替简单主句
(主句)......, as when ……..
3.
Inasmuch as:既然,因为,由于
Insofar as:= to the degree that 在….的范围,引导状语从句
She is really brilliant, insofar as everyone is praising her.
4.
so…as:只用于否定,不用于肯定。
5.
such…as to/ so…as to:一般不接被动语态
☆☆☆☆☆As/just as和 like和such as的区别:
“As/just as+句子”表比较: 像某件事一样 强调动作的相似性 (as+名词:作为…..)
“Like作为介词(不能加句子!)+名词/名词短语”表比较不表示举例:像什么东西一样,强调事物相似,一般放在句首或主语后与主语进行比较(放在句尾不符合语法习惯),作状语
Such as +n./名词短语的省略形式/-ing形式 表示举例,比如…..;可以写成…allergy, such as to milk….,中间省略an allergy
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同位结构:
同位结构不影响主谓一致,判断主谓一致时可略去不看。
同位结构中名词的数可与其修饰对象不一致(即同位语的单复数可以与其解释对象不一致)。
……………..agents, an agent that…… , ……..
内容具体化同位结构:
Theory/evidence/belief/principle +that……,注意that强调整体含义内容,of强调从属关系。但请注意importance通常没有这种同位结构.(importance that…是错的)
特殊的To what 同位语:
a return to ownership of land, to what has been a pre-Columbia form of ownership.
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省略结构:
总原则:省略结构必须能够还原。
必须省略:
第一个句子有be动词或者become,第二句中的重复的be动词或者become和重复的名词形容词必须省略,连词甚至都可以省略。(典型:that X1 be done and X2 done)
并列结构中相同助动词必省:have done and done; is doing and doing; will do and do.
绝不能省略:
动词型宾语从句中引导词that不可省。
同位语从句连词that不可省。
助动词is 不能承接谓语动词is 省略。例如: A is B and is done by C 中的两个is不同,第二个不可省。
状语从句的省略形式:(注意逻辑主语是否一致)
连接词(表转折、时间、条件)+adj./分词短语,
如when feeling down, I will watch TV;
when happy, she sings.等
错误用法:连接词+介词/名词短语,如while in home,while adolescence等
特殊情况:whatever/once+n. 是正确的
逻辑主语:在句首——主句主语;在句尾——它修饰的动词的逻辑主语
比较省略:
最根本的原则是:无歧义就能省就省;有歧义则该补就补
1)、I am taller than he (is). 要省略(主句无宾语,主语比较很明确)
2)、China has more people than Canada has. 一定要补has,以明确 Canada 不是与 people 比,否则从语法上说Canada既可以与China比较,又可以和people比较!
3)、a civilization (a thousand years more ancient than the city ).
括号部分作定语修饰 a civilization
定语从句结构为 a civilization was a thousand years more ancient than the city --情况同 1
4)、….rise,making the construction industry’s economic health much more robust than it was five years ago 是伴随状语,结构是 a large rise makes the economic health more robust than it was five years ago. more robust 是宾补,加上it was更明确表明比较对象是 economic health 而不是a rise.
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否定结构:
意义上的否定:in the absence of, no more …than…(与……同样 不……), no amount of(怎么……也不……),
名词的否定形式:not A but B ; not A, but rather B ; A, rather than B ; A, not B ;
(错误用法:A, but not B)
Not….but rather…比 not…but…语气强烈。
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独立主格结构:(一共有三种)
一般独立主格结构
With型独立主格结构:
作状语有就近修饰原则。
Each引导的强调型独立主格结构:
句子以复数名词结尾,each+prep/adj/-ing/-ed; all, every one 都不能用作独立主格结构
核心词原则:the A of B 中A 是核心词,谓词与A一致。
句子结构涉及到的主谓一致:
1. 倒装结构:There be A and B ,就近原则:A 决定be动词单复数;
全倒装:谓语后面的名词是主语,单复数与其一致;
2. 主语从句:
一般用单数。注意!what,who开头的主语从句如含有复数意思,谓语用复数。
谓语一定是单数: | 谓语一定是复数 | 单复数看情况 |
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!One of ….that…..:that 后面用 复数
The one of …that ….:that 后面用单数
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判断时态:
形容词、副词判断法
一般过去式:Originally
一般现在时:The common reasons, the common procedure中的common(注意宾语从句陈述统计数据、科学事实、商业惯例等时优先使用一般现在时,可以与主句时态不同)
过去完成时:Since+句子/名词短语/时间,since+then;during/within/over/in+the past/last/recent+时间短语
一般将来时:possibility that…/likehood that…注意:主观将来时用be supposed to do…,不常用be going to do,不用 be to be doing, be to be done
完成时:a century of sth 作主语时,考虑用完成时。
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主被动:
被动 用By,不可用 according to….
不可被动的词:
Lead, cause, visit, possess, pay attention to, so as to do;
Enable,become,be able to do, be likely to do; Last; Like,enjoy; Notice,watch,look at,listen to; receive,enter,cost,resemble,suit, fit, contain;
主动表被动:
Read like…;read well; prove helpful(被别人证明很有用,如果是I prove myself helpful 我自己证明自己很有用); sell well(but sold for a price); be +adj to do; too+adj.+to do;be worth doing; (sth) require doing
主被动皆可的词:
Change,train,Open,close,end,finish,target, Determine, interest,intend, Issue,aim
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虚拟语气:
It is +adj.+that …..do……:形容词有:natural/important/ essential/necessary/vital/appropriate
/imperative/advisable/obligatory/best/incredible/ironic/preferable….
注意:解释说明 it is directive that 后面不接虚拟语气,但是directive作为官方指令说时,应用that…do…..
Should +倒装,主句可以不用虚拟语气词。如:should anyone call me(if anyone should call me),you can leave me a message here.
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宾语从句:
表建议:advocate/advise/recommend/move that…do…;sb suggest/propose that…do…
表命令:order/decree/mandate/command/demand that…do…
表要求:request/require/insist that…do…;sth. Require of sb that…do..
注意:sth suggest/propose that 后面是陈述 ;allow/rule that 后面是陈述
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语气强弱:
Only if ≠ if
However much ≠ however
Should 虚拟句≠ if假设句
Be not unlike ≠ be like
If ≠ on condition that(补充,on condition that 可用do表虚拟,也可用一般过去/现在时)
Any+n. ≠ n.
Just like ≠ like
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情态动词:
May和might能互换,其他均不能。
“能力”与“可能”的区别(要注意):
can/could, cannot/could not强调 可能性
be able to/be unable to, be capable of doing sth强调能力
Will be able to 将来的可能性或者能力
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分词:
1)
逻辑主语:
-ing 在句首,逻辑主语是句子主语;在句尾,优先作为伴随状语,有可能修饰主语的谓语动词,逻辑主语等于主句主语,也有可能就近修饰动词,逻辑主语等于所修饰的动词的逻辑主语
-ed 在句首,逻辑主语是句子主语;在句尾,就近修饰名词作定语
2)
后面加-ing分词作宾语的动词或动词短语
1.acknowlegde; avoid; admit; enjoy; escape; suggest; assure; advocate; forbid; permit; favor; recommend; resist; risk; involve; deny; include.
2. give up; credit to; aim at; contribute to; in contrast to; object to; be opposed to; amount to; be exposed/committed/limited/devoted to; lead to; be educated to;be/become accustomed/used to.
3. aid sb in doing; prevent/keep/prohibit/save sb from doing; accuse sb of doing.
4.be expert at; be good at; criticize…for doing; praise…for doing; be capable of…
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不定式:
用法
1)
作定语 X(n.) to do: way, ability, power, tendency, capacity, reason, chance, time, method, attempt, opportunity, thing, work, property.
2)
作表语 X is to do: aim, ability, goal, duty, work, job, purpose, method, problem, effect, activity, mistake.
3)
作宾语补语 X(v.) to do: afford; agree; appear/seem; arrange; choose; claim; come; elect; endeavor; expect; fail; promise; refuse; seek; select; threaten; venture; offer; prefer.
省略to的不定式:
See/watch/notice/spot/hear/observe/perceive/overhear/feel/feel/smell/make/let…do…
Rather than do; all sb do/did is/was do….;might as well do…
Too…to 形式:可以使用 too adj. (for sb) to do;too adj. to be done by sb.
重要的to do:the last/next/2nd/only/best n. to do….. 序数词或形容词最高级 必须用to do
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基本原则:概念对等,有可比性
(重要例子:Unlike A, B…和 contrast to A, B….中A, B 概念要对等
但是contrary to A, B 中A,B的概念可以不等,contrary to 多接belief, idea, judgment等修饰整个句子,不存在修饰逻辑主语B的问题)
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用词原则:
1.替代原则 重复对象尽量用that/those代替
2.形式尽可能对称
3.种属比较时注意排除自身:any other…
4.语序可以倒装或陈述
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情态:可以一致也可不一致,I can eat more than he does.
语态:主动+主动,被动+被动
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倍数的表达:
Twice: Twice the+ n. (twice the money); twice as many/much…as; twice what+从句
用动词表达倍数:double/triple/quadruple/quintuple均为动词,不可与as搭配
…times as +adj. / adv. +as…
Sb be + 百分数 +more likely to do sth than to do sth
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习惯搭配:
As +adj. +a/an +n. +as…
More because… than because…
Not…so much A as B 与其说A倒不如说B
No more …than… 与…同样不…;no more than 最多,不超过
No less …than … 与….一样;no less than 多达
v. +more of/less of +n. 其中more 和less 修饰动词,表示动词的程度(绝对不能用fewer of,因为fewer不修饰动词):I see less of you in the future
as good as, or better than, ….
As +adj +as前面不能加数量词(如2 years, 4 meters),只能加倍数词。注意区分!
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形式对称原则:
1.平行结构标志
Even less 和 much less 表示“更不用说”,用于否定结构后起强调作用,前后词的形式必须一致。
Either…or/ neither…nor(注意前后不能互换)
2.重要的平行结构
分词短语与分词短语并列(-ed与-ing)
现在分词可以和过去分词并列作定语
名词短语可以和what从句并列(find a solution and what we can learn from this problem)
Be likely to do and be unable to do (第二个be不能省略!)
For doing A , not B
Evident that…..,that…..and that…..(连词that不能省略)
n.+ in which……., in which….., and in which……..
to do……and do…….
状语从句与状语从句平行,中间要加and连接词.写成…,standing there, holding a cup of tea.是绝对错误的!
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概念对等原则:以下概念都不对等
具体名词与抽象名词
名称名词和动作性名词
整体和部分
泛指和特指
Be动词和实义动词
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功能相同原则:除了n.+who…..and whose….是正确的,其他混合形式都是错误的,因为引出的定语不同(比如n.+where….and in which…..;n.+where….and who…..)
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意思单一原则:不能引起逻辑上的争议
选项中, and后出现介词时联想到:例如call for A and for B; suspect of doing A and of doing B(在没有争议的前提下可以省略介词)
选项中并列的语句出现位置变换时联想到:例如A for X, B , C有歧义(for B,for C),必须改成 B, C, A for X
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现在分词的完成时态不能作定语修饰名词。Sth having done/ been done 错误。
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As a resulf of…只能作状语,表示 由于….,不能作定语或表语(错误形式:sth as a result of… sth is as a result of…)
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当定语从句sth that….和分词短语作定语–ed sth都可接受时,优先使用-ed形式。
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-ing分词短语作定语 强调动作的重复性 多次性和客观性,无明确时间概念;
定语从句作定语 强调动作的一次性 具体时间的具体行为。
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修饰语的位置不能随意变动:注意原句only的位置,无错则不动
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主动优先原则:主被动语态都正确的情况下,优先使用主动语态。
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简洁性原则:
whether or not不简洁,必须省略or not.
Evidence of what is/was不简洁,应直接:evidence of+名词
注意有时fact是多余的:The fact that he propose the idea不如 his proposal简洁
当定语从句sth that….和分词短语作定语–ed sth都可接受时,优先使用-ed形式。
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避免使用多义词:
避免使用rare多义词(rare meat:半生不熟的;稀少的)
it is hoped作为插入语,前后用逗号分开。Hopefully有多义(充满希望的;人们希望的),书面语一般不用hopefully.
表示一次时,避免使用at one time(有多种含义)而用once
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书面语与口语的区别:
If只表示“如果”,不能表示“是否”。
在有rather than的情况下最好不用Instead of。
标准书面语中一般不用enough to表示结果,因为有主观含义。
“Do+代词”永远错,正确表达是 do so;
Because of和on account of后面只能接名词或名词短语,不能接doing或one’s doing。(because of doing…是错误的!)
不用try and do, 用 try to do
不用all…do not do,用 not all…do…
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用词倾向性:
一句话中尽量避免重复使用一个词。
标准书面用语不接受也不倾向使用双重所有格形式。如:sth of sth’s
优先使用动词去替代:be +该动词的形容词形式/名词形式,have +该动词的名词形式。
例如:influence 替换 be influential/ be an influence
For the determination/determining of 绝对错,应改成 to determine
分数表示:one in four/ out of four. 不倾向使用one of four.
优先使用动词性名词形式替代-ing形式的名词形式(如destruction代替the destroying),如果没有才用the –ing形式表示名词(如the splitting apart of sth)。
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英文单词:
Ability: ability/inability to do/of sb to do;(错误用法:ability for……)
Access :access to sth(错误用法:+for sth)
Advise: advise sb to do; advise that(错误用法:advise sb that;be advised by sb to do/that… )
After: after+n./-ing形式; after +主谓结构
Aid: aid(n.) in doing sth/to doing sth; aid(tv.) sb; aid(iv.)in doing sth(错误用法:aid to do)
Allege: be alleged to do(断言,宣称,辩解;错误用法: be alleged as doing sth)
Allow: allow sb to do,allow that+陈述(错误用法:allow sb doing,allow that…do…)
Attribute: be attributed to sb(错误用法:be attributed to sb’s)
Base: base A on B(少用:base A on doing sth)
Believe: believe+that从句, believe sth to be; believe sth.(错误用法:believe sth sth, believe sth that)
Capable: capability of doing / to do sth.
Claim: claim to do 声称要做什么,强调动作,claim to have done声称发生了什么,做了什么,别考虑完成时的说法!(claim doing错)
Compare:
Compare A to B:把A比作是B。(A,B是不同类的,打比方)
Compare A with B:把 A,B作比较。(A,B是相同的,作比较)
PS:“A和B的比较”正确搭配为 comparison between A and B
Confident: confidence in sth, confidence+that从句; confident about sth.
Consider: consider sth sth; consider sth adj. sth is considered to be sth by sb.(不简洁用法不可取:consider sth to be/as sth)
Contrast: in contrast to/ with, contrast to…, contrast …with…(错误用法:as contrasted with; contrast…to…. )
Control: be in control of sth; keep/bring/ have sth under control; get/take/presume/lose control of sth(错误用法: keep control of sth; keep in control of等)
Credit: be credit with/to+doing/having done (错误用法:be credit as/for, be credit to do)
Descend: descend(verb.) from sth; a descendant(n.) of….(错误用法 a descendant for…)
Dispose: 处置dispose of
Dispute: dispute over(错误用法:dispute about)
Estimate: estimate at+价格等数量词,除此之外都是 estimated to be …
Except: Except for A, B….
A与B属于不同类事物
Except A, B…
A与B属于同类事物
Forbid: forbid sth; forbid sb to do sth; forbid doing(错误用法:forbid sb from doing sth.)
Force:force sb to do(错误用法:force sb doing; force sb that)
Heritage: have a heritage(错误用法:share a heritage)
Intention: the intention of doing(错误用法:the intention to do)
Lead: sth lead sb to do;lead to 没有被动用法
Liable: be liable to do; be liable to(介词) sth; be liable for(介词) sth(错误用法:be liable that….)
Make: make sth sth, make sth +adj , make it +adj+to do…
Mandate: mandate sb to do; mandate that …do…
Mistake: mistake A for B 把A误认作B
Native: be native to(错误用法: be native in/of….)
Necessary: be necessary to do (错误用法:be necessary for doing; be necessary in doing||补充:necessity of sth)
Permit: permit sb to do sth ,sth permit doing…, permit sth(错误用法:permit+that从句,permit sb doing, sb be permitted sth)
Persuade: persuade sb to do sth(错误用法:persuade sb in doing; persuade that)
Phenomenon: phenomenon in which(错误用法:+where)
Possibility: possibility of doing; possibility that …will/would….(错误用法:possibility to do; possibility that …might do…)
Power: power to do; power of sth(错误用法:power of doing sth)
Presence: to one’s presence
Prohibit: prohibit sb. from doing(错误用法: prohibit sb. to do, prohibit that….注意be prohibit from doing永远没有prohibit sth好)
Propose: sth propose+that从句(不虚拟), sb propose +that从句(动词原形表虚拟);
propose sb to do(不能用被动语态); propose doing sth; propose sth.
Rate: 接for表示什么的价格,接of表示什么的比率,请分辨清楚!
Regard: be regarded as A, not as B
Require: require that….do..; require of sb. that…do…; require sb to do; sth be required of sb.
Responsible: be responsible for sth; be responsible for doing sth; be responsible to sb.(错误用法:be responsible to do )
Reversion: a reversion to +名词(恢复,复原;错误用法:a reversion to do)
Rival: A rival B for/in …; rivalry between A and B
Sell: sth sells well; sth is sold for 20 dollars.
Support : in support of;
There be: 错误用法:there being sth, there be sth done; there be a + 由形容词或动词变化而来的词; there could be done
Withdraw: withdraw from…..;
Worry: worry about/over,be worried about/over(错误用法:+concerning,+with respect to)
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中文:
其他一些:some other +复数,some…others, one …another, each…the other, each other
比预期:than expected; than sb. Expected, than sb. had expected.(错误用法:than sb expected it/them to/to be) 注意 sth is –er than expected/estimated/predicted 决不能改成than +抽象名词,否则就成了sth和抽象名词的对比了,这是逻辑错误:无对比性!
比平常:than usual(than be usual be动词多余; than usually错误)
表示举例:such as +n./名词短语的省略形式/-ing形式 不能加句子或代词
for instance/for example/whether it is X1, X2 or X3.
注意like X1 or X2 or X3是错的,必须改成likeX1, X2, or X3(但whether it is X1 or X2 or X3是正确的)
30岁或30岁以上:aged thirty or older
30岁和30岁以上:aged thirty and over
一样或者更甚:at least as….as 或 as…as or –er than
与某人分裂:A breaks with B in doing/sth(in a bitter dispute )
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定语从句的习惯搭配:
时间:The period when…; a time when/ at a time when..; the year that…
Way只有三种用法:The way in which…;the way+句子;the way + to do…
其他:An age in which…; the next time+句子;phenomenon in which…
两者之间:each…the other
三者之间ne…another
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其他常用搭配:
介词+one’s being done/ one’s doing错(例如:through/from their being lifted….in their doing…)介词后只能直接加doing 或 名词短语。
Be able to do作表语(多见 .. is able to do)较少作定语,错误用法:be able to be done
Such 后面不接由动词或形容词转化来的名词如rapidity, profundity, 而是用so rapidly/profound 来表示
All but:几乎……
Make do: 凑合着做
Come to do:to do sth by chance, without planning or intending to do it
避免词与词的语义重复Increase与double包含了增加的意思。
The possibility that…might do….改成 the possibility that…do….
Continue to do有在过去发生并持续到将来的意思,没有必要写 is doing and will continue to do…也没有必要加,as they did/have done before.
Soaring rates不需要再加rise,因为soar就是猛增的意思
Annual 与 a year重复
The only thing that 表达不简洁,必须用all替换
All sb have to do is do …..and do….是正确的,省略了that和to。
Not any=no,但在书面语用 no更简洁
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形容词和副词的区别:
形容词 词义 | 副词 词义 |
Significant 重要的 | Signifantly 很大地,程度大大地 |
Economic 经济学的 | Economically 节俭地(economical而来) |
Increasing 增加的 | Increasingly 愈加地,日益地 |
Alternate 轮流的,替代的 | Alternatively 二选一地,选择地 |
Seeming 表面上的,似乎成真的 | Seemingly 表面上看,看来似乎 |
Quick 灵活机敏的,聪明有能力的 | Quickly 迅速地 |
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情态动词不能随意添加、省略或改变
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同位结构要有解释力:
同位语与修饰对象应属同一类概念
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比较对象要有可比性:
抽象不能对具体,部分不能对整体
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形容词的准确使用:
More 修饰数量多少,older修饰岁数大小。
Ancient -- something old but disappeared, belonging to a time long ago in history, especially
thousands of years ago
Old -- something that is old has existed or been used for a long time
55 percent more delays逻辑意思不清楚,应改成 a 55-percent increase in delays
Great 形容numbers大小,many/much 形容具体事物数量多少
单一性
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And的争议:
如 problems in the management of water and other resources中,既可以是problems与other resources的平行又可以是water与other resources的平行,连接对象产生了争议。
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修饰语的争议:
如A, -ing, B+v.结构中,-ing修饰对象有争议,可以改成-ed形式定语从句只修饰A
又如,A and B, who….结构中,who指代的是A和B,如果who只指代B,则改为B, who…, and A
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