[转帖]托福教学水清木华7、8课程(一)

天心

托福综合作文讲解
　　形式：阅读 + 听记 + 写作
　　重点：
　　1.阅读的核心技术：三点一面的思维体系
　　2.听之前的预判断：反驳常用思维方式和语言
　　3.写作得分点在哪里？
　　3.1听力和阅读的相关
　　3.2听力材料中信息的完整（一般三个点）
　　3.3语言的自然和流畅
　　阅读材料一般有一个观点，然后跟随者对这个观点的解释论证。作者还可能给出比较具体的论据，比如具体的例子和研究。
　　而听力材料主体上是反驳阅读的观点。反驳的主要手法是推翻其论证，或者对其具体论据提出不同的解释。考生在阅读的时候就要形成反驳的意识。这个反驳的主要技术是早期GRE考试的逻辑部分，而GMT的逻辑部分一样在托福中体现其核心思维，但是在托福中形式显得极为简单。
　　阅读材料的基本结构：
　　Directions:考试大(www．Examda。com)
　　For this task you will read a passage about an academic topic and you will listen to a lecture about the same topic. You may take notes while you read and listen.
　　Then you will write a response to a question that asks you about the relationship between the lecture you heard and the reading passage. Try to answer the question as completely as possible using information from the reading passage and the lecture. The question does not ask you to express your personal opinion. You may refer to the reading passage again when you write. You may use your notes to help you answer the question.
　　Typically effective response will be 150 to 225 words. Your response will be judged on the quality of your writing and on the completeness and accuracy of the content.
　　You should allow 3 minutes to read the passage. Then listen to the lecture. Then allow 20 minutes to plan and write your response.
　　OG的例子：

　　Altruism is a type of behavior in which an animal sacrifices its own interest for that of another animal or group of animals. （定义解释）Altruism is the opposite of selfishness; （反面阐述）individuals performing altruistic acts gain nothing for themselves.
　　Examples of altruism abound, both among humans and among other mammals. Unselfish acts among humans range from the sharing of food with strangers to the donation of body organs to family members, and even to strangers. Such acts are altruistic in that they benefit another, yet provide little reward to the one performing the act.
　　In fact, many species of animals appear willing to sacrifice food, or even their life, to assist other members of their group. The meerkat, which is a mammal that dwells in burrows in grassland areas of Africa, is often cited as an example. In groups of meerkats, an individual acts as a sentinel, standing guard and looking out for predators while the others hunt for food or eat food they have obtained. If the sentinel meerkat sees a predator such as a hawk approaching the group, it gives an alarm cry alerting the other meerkats to run and seek shelter. By standing guard, the sentinel meerkat gains nothing--it goes without food while the others eat, and it places itself in grave danger. After it issues an alarm, it has to flee alone, which might make it more at risk to a predator, since animals in groups are often able to work together to fend off a predator. So the altruistic sentinel behavior helps ensure the survival of other members of the meerkat's group.
　　阅读材料Listening Script
　　The following is the script of the lecture that you heard and were asked to summarize.
　　You know, often in science, new findings force us to re-examine earlier beliefs and assumptions. And a recent study of meerkats is having exactly this effect. The study examined the meerkat's behavior quite closely, much more closely than had ever been done before. And some interesting things were found.., like about eating habits.., it showed that typically meerkats eat before they stand guard -- so the ones standing guard had a full stomach! And the study also found that since the sentinel is the first to see a predator coming, it's the most likely to escape... because it often stands guard near a burrow, so it can run immediately into the burrow after giving the alarm. The other meerkats, the ones scattered about looking for food, are actually in greater danger.
　　And in fact, other studies have suggested that when an animal creates an alarm, the alarm call might cause the other group members either to gather together or else to move about very quickly, behaviors that might actually draw the predator's attention away from the caller, increasing that animal’s own chances of survival.
　　And what about people？ what about some human acts that might be considered altruistic? Let's take an extreme case, uh, suppose a person donates a kidney to a relative, or even to a complete stranger. A selfless act, right? But... doesn't the donor receive appreciation and approval from the stranger and from society? Doesn't the donor gain an increased sense of self-worth? Couldn't such non-material rewards be considered very valuable to some people?
　　Question
　　Summarize the points made in the lecture you just heard, being sure to specifically explain how they cast doubt on points made in the reading.

天心

Topic Notes
　　You should understand tile meaning of altruism and altruistic acts. The definitions are given in the reading: altruism describes behavior that is the opposite of selfishness; it is behavior that benefits another individual or the group with no reward. The lecturer questions whether the examples meet the definition.
　　A high-scoring response will include the following points made by the lecturer:
　　POINT MADE IN READING
　　1.Human organ donors gain nothing from their action.
　　2.Sentinel meerkats go without food to stand guard.
　　3.Sentinel meerkats place themselves in danger from predators.
　　CONTRASTING POINT FROM THE LECTURE
　　1.The donors receive appreciation and approval from the rest of society.
　　2.Sentinels actually eat before the other meerkats.
　　3.Sentinels are actually the first to escape the predators.
　　Responses scoring 4 and 5 discuss altruistic/non-altruistic aspects of the three points in the table: human organ donation, meerkat sentinel eating behavior, and meerkat sentinel ability to escape.
　　Sample Responses with Raters' Comments
　　Score 5 Essay 195 单词 7个句子
　　The lecture completely refutes the passage. It is said in the lecture that, the perceived acts of altruism are nothing more than sneaky methods of gaining advantage for one's self. Contrary to the belief in the passage that sentinels risk their lives for the cause of the whole group, the professor says that the meerkat sentinels are in fact less prone to outside threats. The alarm sentinels give off causes to group to move rashly which draws the predators attention towards them, thus drawing away the attention from the sentinels.
　　The lecture refutes the fact that these meerkats are altruistic in the sense that they gain nothing in exchange of their services. In fact, researches have shown that they have a full stomach as they perform this “altruistic” duty and have a better chance of escaping from danger because they witness it first Proffer also offers a different underlying motivation that causes people to believe that acts such as donating an organ or sharing food with someone in need are altruistic. She says that people gain appreciation as a result of such acts, which may be deemed by some much more important than materialistic gains.
　　词汇：
　　Sneaky: indirect, underhand, stealthy, furtiveness
　　Rater's Comments考试大论坛
　　This answer meets all the criteria for a Level 5 response to an integrated task. The writer does a good job of selecting, framing, and interweaving points from the lecture and reading, explicitly and fluently presenting accurate connections between the relevant points. All three points made by the lecturer are included. Language is used accurately and effectively, and the overall piece is well-organized.
　　Score 4 Essay来源：考试大
　　Baed on the lecture, meerkats actually do not sacrifice themself by becoming a sentinel. Firstly, the meerkats that become a sentinel usually eats before. Secondly, these meerkats usually standing guard near their burrows. As a result, when a predator is seen, they raise an alarm and reach a safe place before the other meerkats that hunt for food. This shows that these meerkats do not put themselves in danger. In fact, the lecturer warned that the the alarm raised by these meerkats could be harmfull for the other meerkats. One of the reason is that the responses of the other meerkats to the alarm might attract attention from the predator. Based on these reasons, meerkats can not be used as an example of a mammal that performs altruistic behavior.
　　The lecture also pointed out that. it is not always true that individuals performing altruistic acts gait. nothings for themselves. For example, when a man give one of his/her kidney to a family member or even a stranger, his/her self-worth increase. He/she feels usefull for other people. Therefore, he/she gain something from his/her action.
　　In sum, altruism behavior in animal and human is questioned. It is difficult for individuals sacrificies its own interest without gain anything for themselves.
　　Rater's Comments来源：考试大
　　This response includes all the main points of the lecture. The first paragraph begins with a clear statement that sentinel meerkats do not sacrifice themselves. There are strong concluding statements in each of the first two paragraphs that are quite explicit about the import of the sentinel behavior and the organ donation. The connections to the reading could be stronger. The writer says that the sentinel meerkat eats "before," but does not make an explicit contrast to the passage which says that sentinel meerkats go without eating. The conclusion in the final paragraph is vague (“altruism ... is questioned”). On balance then, this response is a level 4, with minor vagueness and omission. In terms of language, there are a number of minor errors: “themselves” missing verb in the sentence beginning “Secondly;” “one of the reason,” “a man give” “It is difficult for individuals sacrificies.”
　　Score 3 Essay

 

　　Acording to the lecture, examinig closely to the eating habits of meerkats, these amimals are not altruistic, mainly because the sentinel before standing guard eats. So that it has a full stomach. Another fact is that the sentinel, being the first that sees the predator, is able to be the first in escape. Also the other meerkats that are hunting and looking for food are the ones in danger. Considering the altruistic human acts, the donation of body organs shouldn't be considered like that, mainly because when a person donates an organ he or she receives appreciation and recognition of society.
　　Because of this points the lecture might make the reader doubt, mainly because the eating habits of the meerkats have been studied closely, giving arguments in order to justify that meerkats aren't doing altruistic acts.
　　The other argument about human and [heir altruistic actions sounds logical and a situation in which a person would donate organs just to get appreciation of society couls be probable.
　　Because of this both, reading and lecture, are completely opposite, might make the user doubt and reflect more about altruism.
　　Rater’s Comments来源：考试大
　　This response is at level 3. On the positive side, the response includes all the facts of the sentinel meerkat from the lecture as well as organ donation. However it is very vague in how it relates (see the Level 3 description in the Scoring Guide) the various points in the lecture to the points in the reading. There is no clear reference to the claim in the reading that the sentinel is sacrificing food or any explanation of the other meerkats being in danger. The statement commenting on organ donation, “The other argument about human and their altruistic actions sounds logical and a situation in which a person would donate organs just to get appreciation of society could be probable,” is not very clear.

天心

例二：
　　READING (Time-3 minutes)
　　Irrigation, the artificial watering of land for agriculture, uses water from a number of sources: direct rainfall.
　　例二：
　　READING (Time-3 minutes)
　　Irrigation, the artificial watering of land for agriculture, uses water from a number of sources: direct rainfall, direct stream flow, water stored in lakes and reservoirs, high-quality groundwater, brackish surface water, and even seawater. Water for irrigation is diverted from rivers and lakes or pumped underground. Different crops have different irrigation requirements, so there are many forms of irrigation and types of irrigation technology.
　　Various methods of surface irrigation deliver water to a field directly from a canal, well, or ditch. The surface technique of flooding large fields is widely used because of low capital costs and long tradition. Furrow irrigation, practiced since ancient times, involves digging numerous U-or V-shaped open furrows through irrigated land and introducing water into them from a channel at the top of a field. As with other surface techniques, water collects into ponds on the field. In surface-pipe irrigation, the water is piped to the field and distributed via sprinklers or smaller pipes.
　　Border irrigation is a type of surface irrigation that involves flooding land in long parallel strips separated by earth banks built lengthwise in the direction of the slope of the land. Water flows from the highest point in the field to the lowest. Basin irrigation is similar to border irrigation but includes earth banks constructed crosswise to those used for border irrigation, dividing a field into a series of basins that can be separately irrigated.
　　LISTENING AND WRITING
　　(narrator)．
　　Now listen to part of a lecture on the same topic.
　　(Professor)

　　One thing that really concerns water resource analysts is how much water agriculture uses. Agriculture uses a lot of water, more than all other water-using sectors of society. One of our greatest concerns is the very high use of water by irrigation. This is because, in most cases, the water used for irrigation can’t be used afterward for other purposes, such as water supply for homes or industry.
　　Some forms of irrigation use water more efficiently than others. The efficiency of water use varies by region, crop, agricultural practice, and technology. The least efficient types of irrigation are the surface methods. Your reading really didn’t go into this, but think of how much water it takes for a traditional surface method like field flooding. It takes a lot of water to flood a field. The water collects into ponds or basins, but then most of it either evaporates into the air or passes down through the soil into groundwater. This means that, in lots of places, less than half of all the water applied to a field is actually used by the crop. The rest is lost to evaporation or to groundwater. All of the flooding methods generally waster a lot of water-water that could otherwise be used for other purposes.
　　Fortunately, there are several irrigation technologies that are more efficient than the poorly controlled and highly wasteful flooding methods. They range from sprinkler systems to drip irrigation. In sprinkler systems, water is sprayed over crops, and this provides an even distribution of water. New precision sprinkler technologies have greatly improved our ability to deliver water exactly when and where it’s needed. However, sprinkler systems are also a form of surface irrigation, and just as in other surface methods, some of the water is still lost to evaporation.
　　(Narrator)考试大(www．Examda。com)
　　Summarize the points made in the lecture, explaining how they cast doubt on points made in the reading.
　　The task requires you to do two things:
　　(1) summarize the key points from the lecture, and
　　(2) explain how they cast doubt on points made in the reading.
　　To respond to the question completely, you have to connect information from the lecture and the reading.
　　The key points from the lecture are:
　　1.Irrigation uses a lot of water that cannot be used later for other purposes.
　　2.Surface methods of irrigation are the least efficient methods.
　　3.The surface method of field flooding wastes a lot of water.
　　4.With field flooding, most of the water evaporates or passes into groundwater.
　　5.Sprinkler systems are more efficient than flooding, but some water is still lost.
　　Generally, the points made in the lecture cast doubt on the information in the reading, which does not address the wastefulness and lack of efficiency of surface irrigation.
　　The written response should answer the question by using relevant information from the lecture and the reading. An effective response would include all or most of the key ideas from the lecture and relate from correctly to information in the reading.
　　Examples of responses to this writing question：
　　RESPONSE BY STUDENT 1 Word count:169
　　Irrigation, the artificial watering of land for agriculture, has a high use of water. Water for irrigation comes from several sources, such as direct rainfall, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Some irrigation methods use a lot of water, such as flooding large fields. According to the reading, flooding is widely used because of low cost and long tradition. However, the lecture casts doubt on this point by stating that surface methods are not efficient.
　　The water that is used for irrigation can’t be used for other purposes. With surface irrigation, some of the water goes to the plants; however, a lot of water evaporates or passes down into the ground. This wastes a lot of water because the water is not available for other purposes such as drinking.
　　The surface method of flooding large fields requires a lot of water. Some of the water evaporates when it collects into ponds on the field. Sprinkler systems are a more efficient type of surface irrigation, but they also lose water to evaporation.
　　RESPONSE BY STUDENT 2 Word count: 210
　　The professor made the point that the use of water for irrigation is very high. In general, agriculture uses a lot of water, and the water for irrigation cannot be used for other purposes. For example, it cannot be the water supply for homes and industry. The reading does not discuss this point.
　　Another important point is that some irrigation methods are not efficient in using water. For example, surface methods of irrigation use a lot of water. Surface methods deliver water to a field directly from a canal, well, of ditch. Examples are flooding, border irrigation, and basin irrigation. Surface methods are not efficient because they waste a lot of water. For example, the surface technique of flooding large fields requires a large amount of water. However, half of the water is used by the crop, and the rest is lost to evaporation. In general, surface methods of irrigation are not efficient, but the reading does not discuss this point.
　　Finally, the professor stated that some technology is more efficient than flooding. An example is the sprinkler method, which sprays crops with water. However, sprinklers are a surface method, and some water is wasted. In general, the professor discusses problems with surface irrigation that the reading dies not include.

天心

阅读材料的分类：
　　1.定义+解释——多层例证
　　2.新发现+三点证据、理论
　　3.问题 + 解决方案 + 理由
　　4.历史现象+原因分析
　　5.事物、现象+ 利弊分析
　　6.打分偏高（inflation of marks）
　　reading
　　例题： 老师给学生打的分数越来越高
　　阅读主要内容
　　1.分数打得低会减低学生的学习意志
　　2.会影响教师自己的测评结果
　　3.因为别的老师给的成绩高，如果不跟着给高分，学生出去找工作会吃亏
　　lecture
　　解决方案
　　1.应从小灌输正确的学习观念，不应因一次小失利而丧失信心
　　2.教师的评测可以改在学期结束前进行，这样学生的成绩就不会影响到评测结果
　　3.企业在选拔人才时可以看学生在班级中的排名而不是单纯的成绩
　　例文：
　　第一段：
　　概括双方论点，构成第一次相关
　　语言和用此要考究，但是绝对不要使用网络模板
　　The inflation in college grading is said to be positive in reading. But the lecturer 反驳？this assertion after providing …
　　表达反驳的词语
　　1.Gainsay her claims by…
　　2.Do not grant or concede or acknowledge that…
　　3.Refuse to accept as true
　　4.A refusal to accept as positive
　　5.Contradicts that…
　　6.Disaffirm
　　7.Assail
　　8.Resist
　　9.Impugn
　　10.Refute
　　11.Disprove
　　12.Confound——不能随意使用
　　13.Rebut： to contradict or oppose by formal legal argument, plea, or countervailing proof b : to expose the falsity of : REFUTE
　　14.一个学生的段落分析：
　　The speaker challenges the reasoning that supports the current inflation in college grading system, and provides very specific alternatives to teacher evaluation timing and employer methodology in judging a student.
　　改写：
　　第二段：
　　告诉读者听力中的第一次反驳
　　1.反驳的点在哪里？What?
　　2.阅读材料上是怎么说的？what?
　　3.说话人是如何反驳的？ HOW？
　　4.你使用定语从句了没有？
　　5.你使用状语从句没有？
　　6.你的句子之间有没有严谨的逻辑关系？
　　7.你是怎么表达这些逻辑关系的？
　　8.你试用了那些过渡词语？
　　第一个句子： 说话人直接/坦率地反驳阅读观点。

　　副词：
　　1.Straightforwardly
　　2.Candidly
　　3.Frankly
　　4.Unequivocally
　　5.Pretenselessly
　　6.Outspokenly
　　7.Barefacedly
　　8.Straight-from-the-shoulder
　　阅读观点认为……但是说话人直接反驳到……
　　As the reading indicates, it is …for …to do…Nevertheless, the lecturer unequivocally contradicts that…
　　It is claimed in the reading that…However, the speaker believes that this concept stands on a weak ground.
　　The lecture completely refutes the passage. It is said in the lecture that... Contrary to the belief in the passage that… the professor says that… are in fact less prone to ... The alarm sentinels give off causes to group to move rashly which draws the predators attention towards them, thus drawing away the attention from the sentinels.
　　The speaker first argues that the inflated grades will not enable students to truly know their weakness, not to mention improve upon them. According to the reading, low grades will discourage students. The speaker rebuts this point and argues that the true meaning of education is not just to satisfy students. Letting the students make progress is the purpose and inflated grades will not help students in this way. As for the reading's concerns that low grades will adversely affect teachers' evaluation, the speaker offers a solution. By finishing the teachers' evaluation before the end of the semester, we can sever the connections between the students' grades and teachers' evaluations.
　　Lastly, the speaker argues that the school does not have to follow the trend of inflated grades invariably. The reading argues that if the school does not follow the trend, their students will be discriminated, the lecture says that this problem can be solved by providing a weighted relative score. This score will pinpoint a student's percentile in the whole student body and show the other students' scores, thus allowing employers to clearly position the student among the entire student body。

　　翻译练习：

　　阅读文章中认为北美印第安人大量死亡的主要原因是欧洲移民入侵时期为了经济利益主要是为了获得土地和资源而对印第安人进行大规模屠杀。但是教授从医学史料和病例分析提出质疑。该教授基于人口统计学死亡率的数据，认为是印第安人不具备抗体和免疫能力较低导致的死亡。这个教授列举了淋病，梅毒等疾病作为证据。并且应用印第安遗骸的DNA证据来支持自己的观点，反对阅读观点。
　　提示：
　　massacre.
　　decimate
　　shoot.
　　slaughter.
　　annihilate.
　　exterminate.
　　ruin

      put (or do) to death, put to sleep, take one's life
　　immunity
　　sexually transmitted diseases